Bibliographic Essay 587the Works of Latin American Writers (Martinus Nijhoff , 1954). Included in this work
is the debate over a distinctive American international law, 121– 36.
Another greatly neglected topic is the professionalization of international law in the
nineteenth century. On the founding of the Institute of International Law, see Romain
Yakemtchouk, “Les origins de l’Institut de Droit International,” 77 RGDIP 373– 423
(1973). On the history of the American Society of International Law, see Frederic Kir-
gis, Th e American Society of International Law’s First Century 1906– 2006 (Martinus
Nijhoff , 2006). Yet another understudied subject is the history of international- law
teaching. For a beginning, see Manfred Lachs, Th e Teacher in International Law
(Teachings and Teaching) (Martinus Nijhoff , 1982). For a welcome study of the topic in
one country, see R. St. J. Macdonald, “An Historical Introduction to the Teaching of
International Law in Canada,” 12 Canadian Y.B. Int’l L. 67– 110 (1974).
On the two dominant fi gures in international law in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, Renault has received by far the greater attention, although not
recently. See Paul Fauchille, “Louis Renault (1843– 1918): Sa vie— son oeuvre,” 25
(supp.) RGDIP 1– 147 (1918). On Martens, see V. V. Pustovarov, V. V., Our Martens: F.
F. Martens, International Lawyer and Architect of Peace (trans. by W. E. Butler; Sim-
monds and Hill, 2000).
On the career of a prominent Austrian international lawyer of the period, see Erich
Kussbach, “Heinrich Lammasch, Scholar of Public International Law and Austrian
Statesman,” 1(2) Miskole J. Int’l L. 63– 77 (2004). Francis Lieber has also attracted
some attention. See, for example, Frank Freidel, Francis Lieber, Nineteenth Century
Liberal (Louisiana State University Press, 1947); and Ernest Nys, “Francis Lieber— His
Life and Work,” 5 AJIL 84– 117, 355– 93 (1911). For a more recent account, see Betsy
Röben, Johann Caspar Bluntschli, Francis Lieber und das modern Völkerrecht 1861–
1881 (Nomos, 2003), 15– 40. A great deal of information about Lieber may also be
found in John Fabian Witt, Lincoln’s Code: Th e Laws of War in American History (Ba-
sic, 2012), particularly 173– 96, 226– 49, and 317– 21. For a biography of Halleck, see
John F. Marszalek, Commander of All Lincoln’s Armies: A Life of General Henry W.
Halleck (Harvard University Press, 2004), although it makes only passing reference to
Halleck’s activity in international law. On Francis Wharton, see Mark W. Janis, Th e
American Tradition of International Law: Great Expectations 1789– 1914 (Ox ford Uni-
versity Press, 2004), 122– 24.
On humanitarian achievements of international law in the nineteenth century,
there is a growing literature. For a general history of the International Committee of
the Red Cross, see Caroline Moorehead, Dunant’s Dream: War, Switzerland and the
History of the Red Cross (HarperCollins, 1998).
For an impressively thorough survey of the development of international organiza-
tions in the nineteenth century, see F. S. L. Lyons, Internationalism in Eu rope 1815–
1914 (A. W. Sijthoff , 1963). On the contribution of Paul Reinsch, see Jan Klabbers,
“Re- Th inking Functionalism: Paul S. Reinsch and the Making of International Insti-
tutional Law” (Straus Institute Working Paper No 02/10, 2010).