146 Anthony et al. 2005, p. 412, calculate that at least eighteen dogs were butchered.
The dog bones show skinning and dismemberment marks, and were broken (for
marrow?) like those of cattle and sheep. Dog heads, which are over-represented
compared to other body parts, were roasted and then carefully chopped into 10–12
small, neat, almost identical segments with axe blows.
The winter season of the animals’ death was determined by measurement of the dental
cementum.
147 Anthony et al. 2005, p. 413.
148 See Bersenev, Epimakhov and Zdanovich 2011, Fig. 2.
149 Kohl 2007, p, 153.
150 Bersenev, Epimakhov and Zdanovich 2011, p. 197.
151 See Kohl 2007, p. 146: “Two hundred or more settlements of the KMK have been
documented, some of them with cultural deposits approximately 1 m. thick.”
152 Parzinger 2013, p. 910.
153 See Anthony 2005, p. 396:
At the beginning of the LBA, about 1900–1800 BC, the people of the Samara
Oblast began to live in a new way. At the same sites where they stayed only
briefly in tents or wagons (?) in the MBA, permanent timber buildings were
erected and thick middens of garbage were deposited in the LBA. Settlement
sites became archaeologically visible as if a veil had been lifted across the
northern steppe and forest-steppe. About 150 Srubnaya settlements and 60
Srubnaya kurgan cemeteries are known in the Oblast, where there were only 10
very small scatters of MBA ceramics to represent MBA settlement....154 Kushnareva 1997, p. 207. Kushnareva here describes the settlements surrounded by
moats as “reminiscent of the terramaradwellings of northern Italy.”
155 Smith 2009, pp. 27–28.
156 Kushnareva 1997, p. 208: “The latter [defensive systems] are evident at Kyul-Tepe
II, Karmir-Berd, Uzerlik-Tepe, Garakapek-Tepesi, Shaglama I, and Shaglama II.”
157 Kohl 2007, p. 120: “It is thought, though not yet conclusively demonstrated, that the
earliest fortresses with cyclopean stone architecture... may first date in the Middle
Bronze period.” Contra, see Shanshashvili and Narimanishvili 2013, p. 179: “The
construction of ‘cyclopean’ settlements and fortresses in the central regions of the
Southern Caucasus started from 16th century BC.”
158 Kushnareva 1997, pp. 90–93; for illustrations of some of the weapons see her Fig.
39 (p. 98).
159 For the goblet see Kohl 2007, Fig. 3.28, or Kushnareva 1997, pp. 112–113, with Fig.
- Kushnareva concludes that both the silver goblet from Karashamb and the gold
cup from Kirovakan were of local origin and workmanship.
160 Edens 1995, p. 60.
161 Kohl 2007, p. 116.
162 Smith 2009, p. 28. On the same page Smith suggests that,
[t]he appearance of carts and wagons, as well as ox and horse sacrifices, in burials
from sites such as Trialeti (group II, Djaparidze 1969; Gogadze 1972), Lori-
Berd (Devejyan 1981), Aruch (Areshian et al. 1977), and Kirgi (Esaian
1976:101) attest not only to the technology of mobility during the Middle
Bronze Age, but also its centrality to dimensions of belief and value. Similarly,
the inclusion of large numbers of bronze spearheads, axes, swords, daggers and
arrowheads (also of obsidian) point to the considerable violence of the era.163 Pogrebova 2003, following Littauer and Crouwel, and writing when the Lchashen
chariots were the earliest known from the region, argued that the southern Cau -
106 Warfare in Western Eurasia