12 Probst 1996.
13 For discussion of the dendro dates for the Leubingen grave (1940 BC) and the
Helms dorf grave (1840 BC) see Harding 2000, p. 17.
14 Behrendt, Küssner and Mecking 2015, p. 99, report that laboratory analysis identified
twenty-two heads with tin content (between 4.5 and 7.7 percent) and a trace of silver.
The authors date the settlement and the hoard to the developed Únĕtice culture,
between 1900 and 1600 BC. For color illustrations see Curry 2012.
15 According to Küssner the large house, the axes, and other finds “date clearly to Bronze
Age A2 and are younger than the Leubingen burial mound” (personal communication,
August 8, 2012).
16 Nicolis 2013, p. 694.
17 Nicolis 2013, p. 694.
18 On these see Barbieri and Cavazzutti 2014.
19 On copper mining in the western Alps see O’Brien 2015, pp. 117–120.
20 Bourgarit et al. 2008.
21 See Bourgarit et al. 2008, p. 4: “The recent radiocarbon dating of the Vallon du Longet
[smelting] site shows the highest probability between 2210 and 2130 BC.” In the mine
itself large pieces of larch wood yielded dates between 2300 and 1750 BC.
22 Bourgarit et al. 2008, p. 9.
23 For a map showing the location of “rich chiefly burials” see Kristiansen and Larsson
2005, p. 121, Fig. 43.
24 See Czebreszuk 2007.
25 On the origins of the Nordic Bronze Age see Kristiansen and Larsson 2005,
pp. 186–191, and Vandkilde 2014.
26 Sherratt 1994, p. 260.
27 Sherratt 1994, p. 261.
28 See the generalization made by Dumitrescu Bolomey and Mogoşanu 1982, p. 46,
on the Carpathian-Danubian region:
Although the beginning of the Bronze Age in this area has been placed about
2000 B.C. or even earlier on the basis of analogies with the south, the most
suitable date is 1900–1800 B.C., prior to which no bronze objects are known.
Dumitrescu relied especially on typological evidence because “no C-14 date is
available at present for the Bronze Age cultures of Romania.” In his recent survey
of the period 3000–1900 BCin Romania, Bulgaria and Moldova, a period which he
calls “Early Bronze Age,” Boroffka mentions no metal objects other than gold and
silver lock-rings (Boroffka 2013, p. 884).
29 See Becker 2000.
30 See Becker 2000, p. 70, Tab. 3, for the osteological evidence from Poiana-Ampoiului,
a Coţofeni settlement: 685 bones from sheep and goats were found there, 226 from
cattle, 226 from pigs, fifty from dogs, and only one from a horse.
31 See Ciugudean 1991. This article details the excavation (from 1979 to 1988) of eight
very low tumuli near Ampoit,a, which lies almost at the center of Transylvania. Within
the tumuli were forty-two inhumation burials and three cremation burials. Ciugudean
dates the burials to his FBz II period, commencing with the absolute end of Coţofeni
assemblages (his FBz I covers the waning of Coţofen i). Ciugudean makes no mention
of bronze or of weapons in these burials, but at pp. 94–95 he reports that two gold
rings were found in Grave III/1, along with a pair of spiral “eye-glasses.” The “eye-
glasses” were one of only two copper items found at Ampoit,a. Of the Coţofeni culture
Becker 2000, p. 65, says “Metallbearbeitung war noch unbedeutend.”
32 In surveying what preceded the Otomani-Füzesabony culture, Thomas 2008, p. 15,
includes “die zahlreichen Hügelgräber, die sowohl in die Ostslowakei als auch in
Ostungarn pauschal als Hinterlassenschaften eindringender pontischer Nomaden168 Militarism in temperate Europe