to keep track of what was happening in their original homeland, a pattern described
as ‘chain migration’ by Anthony (1997, 24).35 For the 2004 workshop see Lichter 2005. See also Krauss 2011.
36 Brami and Heyd 2011.
37 Finkelberg 1997, 2001 and 2005, pp. 49–50.
38 For the bilingual and its implications see Drews 2001b, pp. 257–258. To the citations
there add Adiego 2007.
39 For details see Drews 2001b, pp. 261–262.
40 Carruba 1995, pp. 18–19.
41 Most recently in Heggarty and Renfrew 2014.
42 Zvelebil 1995. Zvelebil followed Renfrew in postulating Anatolia as the birthplace of
PIE. Again, I would insist that if Proto-Indo-Hittite was indigenous to western and
southern Anatolia, PIE must ipso factohave been spoken at a much later time and in
a very different place.
43 For a recent summary see Häusler 2004, and especially p. 28. A variation of Häusler’s
theory has been put forward by journalist Carl-Heinz Boettcher in a semi-popular book
(Boettcher 1999). In the 5th millennium BC, Boettcher believes, warriors from the
Ertebølle Culture of Denmark and southern Sweden conquered and imposed their PIE
language on the peaceful Linearbandkeramik culture. From this hybrid came the TRB
culture, in which PIE—as the language of the elite—was eventually dominant.
44 In the 19th century an Indo-European origin for the river names was explored by Robert
Ferguson in his The River Names of Europe. (London: Williams and Norgate 1862).
It was advocated at length by Hans Krahe, beginning in 1942 and culminating in
his booklet Unsere ältesten Flussnamen(Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1964). Krahe con -
cluded there (pp. 81–82) that his alteuropäische Hydronomiewas in place no later than
the 2nd millennium BC. Although Krahe’s work is still highly regarded, it has been
challenged by Theo Vennemann, who argues (Vennemann 2003) that the names were
conferred on the rivers by speakers of “Vasconic” languages. Basque, the only surviving
pre-Indo-European language in Europe, is a Vasconic language, as in classical antiquity
may have been Iberian and Aquitanian. Vennemann proposes that in the Upper
Paleolithic period Vasconic languages were widespread in southern Europe. As the
last glacial period ended 12,000 years ago, and the population of southern Europe
gradually pushed northward to avail itself of land newly freed from ice, Vasconic
speakers gave names to the rivers that they found in central and northern Europe.
Vennemann’s Vasconic thesis is controversial and not widely accepted, but his work
shows how the river names in question can be analyzed in very different ways, leading
to very different results.
45 Schmid 1972.
46 Ryan and Pitman 1998.
47 See, for example, Yanko-Hornbach, Gilbert and Dolukhanov 2007. Dolukhanov has
done considerable research on the Neolithic period of the north shore of the Black Sea.
48 Matthews 2007, p. 28.
49 Matthews 2007, p. 31.
50 Motuzaite-Matuzeviciute, Telizhenko and Jones 2013 report that evidence for cereal,
dating ca. 3500 BC, was found in a shell midden near Ardych-Burun, on the southeastern
coast of the Crimea. Until this discovery, the earliest evidence for cereals in Crimea
was from late in the 2nd millennium BC.
51 Gamkrelidze and Ivanov 1995.
52 Drews 1988, pp. 32–35.
53 That wheeled vehicles were first made in southern Caucasia was argued by Piggott
1969, but archaeologists have yet to find in corporeevidence for wheeled vehicles in
southern Caucasia from either the 4th millennium BCor the first half of the third. They
24 Origins and spread of Proto-Indo-European