246 Deliyannis
Consolation of Philosophy the games that he gave when his sons were raised to
the consulate in 522.77
Public entertainments, at least in large cities like Rome and Milan, were
under the authority of an official called the tribunus voluptatum.78 This is
because charioteers, dancers, and actors were paid directly by the government.
Theoderic writes several letters about the appointment of a government-paid
pantomime to the Green party at Rome (one of the city’s four chariot-racing
teams), he pays stipends to some retired charioteers, and he orders the consuls
to pay charioteers in Milan and gladiator-hunters in Rome.79 The most popular
and also the most controversial sport was chariot racing, which had become
ever more popular in the 5th century, especially after the ending of gladiatorial
combats. In imperial cities such as Rome, an important part of the palace com-
plex inside the city walls was the public racecourse or circus.80 Rome’s Circus
Maximus was the largest and most famous in the Roman world, but in Italy
smaller circuses existed at Milan and Aquileia. It is not clear whether a circus
had been built at Ravenna in the imperial period, as evidence is almost non-
existent.81 Several letters in the Variae describe riots and lawsuits surrounding
the circus factions in Rome, indicating both the popularity of the sport and the
partisan tensions it aroused.82 Cassiodorus says several times that chariot rac-
ing, beast—gladiator fights, and the like are deplorable in every way, but since
the people want them, rulers must provide them.83
Since the spectacles continued, some structures must have remained in use.
Indeed in some cities the Roman entertainment complexes still stand today,
but in many cases they have largely disappeared, their stones used for other
esquisitas Africa sub devotione transmisit. Cunctis itaque eximia laude completis tanto
amore civibus Romanis insederat, ut eius adhuc praesentiam desiderantibus Ravennam
ad gloriosi patris remearet aspectus. Ubi iteratis editionibus tanta Gothis Romanisque
dona largitus est, ut solus potuerit superare quem Romae celebraverat consulatum.”
77 Ward-Perkins, From Classical Antiquity, p. 102; Boethius, Consolatio Philosophiae 2.3.
78 Variae 1.43, 5.25, and 7.10.
79 Variae 1.20, 32, and 33 (pantomime), 2.9 and 3.51 (retired charioteers), 3.39 and 5.42 (pay-
ment by consul).
80 See especially Humphrey, Roman Circuses, pp. 578–638, who documents circuses for
Nicomedia, Trier, Sirmium, Milan, Aquileia, Thessalonike, and Antioch.
81 See Vespignani, “Il circo di Ravenna”, Gillett, “Rome, Ravenna”, pp. 159–60, Johnson,
“Toward a History”, p. 83, Cirelli, Ravenna, pp. 90–2, and Deliyannis, Ravenna in Late
Antiquity, pp. 59–60.
82 Variae 1.20, 27, 31, and 32, and 6.4. See Ward-Perkins, From Classical Antiquity, pp. 106–7,
and Cameron, Circus Factions.
83 Variae 3.51 and 5.42.