318 Lozovsky
glorious mother of eloquence”.5 Developing his argument further, he pointed
out that such instruction had a deeper moral and practical dimension because
it elevated the mind and imparted traditional wisdom: “Grammar is the mis-
tress of words, the embellisher of the human race; through the practice of the
noble reading of the ancient authors, she helps us, we know, by her counsels.”6
Finally, according to Cassiodorus, this learning defined the Romans as a civi-
lized nation. An exclusive mark of civility, which set the Romans apart from
barbarians, “rhetoric is found in sole obedience to the lords of the Romans”.7
Ennodius, another highly educated Roman who pursued a career in the
church, also spoke highly of grammar and rhetoric as the subjects that formed
the necessary foundation of liberal studies and fostered Roman morals and
Christian virtues. In a short tract known as Paraenesis didascalica, Ennodius
advised two young men, Ambrosius and Beatus, exhorting them to follow
the path of faith and virtue. At the beginning of this path Ennodius placed
Grammar and Rhetoric, calling the former the nursemaid and the latter the
mother of the liberal arts: their task was to nurture young souls, preparing
them for higher knowledge and directing them toward a virtuous life.8
Teachers of grammar and rhetoric enjoyed respect and social prestige.
Ennodius highly praised Deuterius who taught grammar and rhetoric in Milan
at the time when Ennodius was deacon there (ca. 496–513). In one of his rhe-
torical compositions, Ennodius described the occupation of the venerabilis
magister as “the sign of liberty, the testimony to good blood, sharpening the
minds, forging the senses”. In another, he hailed the grammarian as the “glory
of Italy” and the “guardian of empire”.9
5 Cassiodorus, Variae 9.21.3, trans. Barnish, p. 122: “Prima enim grammaticorum schola est fun-
damentum pulcherrimum litterarum, mater gloriosa facundiae.. .”
6 Ibid., 9.21.4, trans. Barnish, p. 122: “Grammatica magistra verborum, ornatrix humani
generis, quae per exercitationem pulcherrimae lectionis antiquorum nos cognoscitur iuuare
consiliis.”
7 Ibid.: “sola reperitur eloquentia, quae Romanorum dominis obsecundat.”
8 Ennodius, Opusc. 6.11, p. 313 (Grammar): “istae tamen prae foribus quasi nutricem ceterarum
anteponunt grammaticam.” Rhetoric: ibid., 17, p. 314: “poetica, iuris peritia, dialectica, arith-
metica, cum me utantur quasi genetrice, me tamen adserente sunt pretio”; Relihan, Ancient
Menippean Satire, pp. 164–75 (trans. on pp. 211–19); Kennell, Ennodius, pp. 163–4; Everett,
Literacy, pp. 23–4; Marconi, “Istruzione laica”.
9 Ennodius, Opusc. 85 (Dict. 9), p. 113: venerabilis magister, libertatis index, boni testimonium
sanguinis, ingeniorum lima, fabricator sensuum; Opusc. 208 (Carm. 2.90), p. 168: imperii cus-
tos; Opusc. 213 (Carm. 1.2), p. 170: decus Italiae. On grammarians in late antiquity see Kaster,
Guardians of Language, especially pp. 30; 267–9; Chin, Grammar and Christianity.