190 Jacoby
In these circumstances, surpluses exported from the territories of Latin
Greece to Constantinople before 1204 had to be partly re-directed toward
other markets. The need for a re-orientation of trade and shipping networks
occurred precisely in a period witnessing a rise in western demand for specific
commodities produced in Latin Greece, namely foodstuffs, especially grain,
cheese, wine and salt, as well as industrial raw materials such as cotton, silk
and colourants. This western demand was generated by demographic expan-
sion, a rise in purchasing power and living standards, as well as a growth in
industrial production and an increase in the volume and value of goods avail-
able for exchange. These processes, already well underway in the 12th century,
gained momentum in the following period and had a decisive impact on the
economy of Latin Greece. Soon after 1204 they contributed to a major shift in
the orientation of this region’s economy. Instead of being mainly geared toward
Constantinople and the internal Byzantine market, as before 1204, it rapidly
became inserted within the patterns of the western supply system. This shift
was decisively enhanced by Venetian presence and economic activity in the
region, discussed below. By 1261, when Byzantium recovered Constantinople,
the process had become irreversible, despite the renewed expansion of the
city’s economy in the following period. To be sure, Latin Greece benefited from
the intensification of trade in Constantinople and the Black Sea in that period,
yet the West, especially Italy, remained henceforth its main trading partner.
The Rural Economy: The Workforce
In Latin Greece land was the backbone of the economy, as in the preced-
ing Byzantine period.7 It was the main source of commodities, wealth, and
taxation. The nature, continuity, and intensity of rural exploitation largely
depended upon the availability of an adequate workforce and demographic
fluctuations in the countryside, the management of large estates, and the
selective use of natural and manmade resources. The attitude of the large
landowners toward rural exploitation was of paramount importance in that
context, as most land was in their hands and their social dominance was likely
to have economic implications.8 Several non-rural factors also impacted on the
7 For this section, see Jacoby, “After the Fourth Crusade”; idem, “Italian Migration”; idem,
“Changing Economic Patterns”; idem, “Rural Exploitation”.
8 Throughout this study I use “landowner” in contrast to “villein”, peasant or “leaseholder”,
regardless of whether the land was owned or held in fief.