who have started formal education. Yet there is a new twist to this discussion
in the middle of the thirteenth century. R. Meir of Rothenburg emphasizes
that only boys who can control their bodily functions and their thoughts may
wear tefillin. These youngsters are defined as boys who have already received
a formal education and even reached age thirteen.^148 This became standard
practice in Ashkenaz, and by the fifteenth century, some even went so far as to
say only married men should wear teffilin.^149 It would seem that a reevalua-
tion of this religious obligation was taking place and that the age of taking on
this precept was being raised. This is true of other religious obligations as well,
such as having a child count as the tenth man needed for a minyan, a quorum,
to pray in public.^150
A somewhat parallel process in medieval Christian society has been outlined
by scholars, most recently in the work of Kathryn Taglia. Taglia has discussed
the evolution of communion and confirmation in France from part of the
process of infant initiation to separate rites and has noted that during the thir-
teenth century communion was delayed to adolescence and was not held at
age seven as was previously accepted.^151 Nicholas Orme has argued that this
process went on in England as well, especially in regard to practices concern-
ing confession and communion.^152 While the nature of observance of Jewish
and Christian religious obligations was different, it would seem that a parallel
process was taking place in both societies.
Even more important, during this same period, a reevaluation of women’s
responsibilities and participation was taking place. As we saw in this chapter,
in the context of the same issue, tefillin, the same scholar R. Meir, and those
who followed him, had new things to say about women and the precept. This
case is different from that of male children since tefillin was not a female pre-
cept and women who wore tefillin were the exception, not the rule. However,
during the Middle Ages, specifically in Ashkenaz, some women took this pre-
cept upon themselves. During the second half of the thirteenth century, sharp
criticism of this practice was voiced and over time these objections became the
norm. We have seen additional examples of such changes as well.^153 This at-
titude toward women’s religious roles also has some parallel in medieval Chris-
tian society. I would suggest that this change of attitude toward both child and
female participation in observances should perhaps be seen not as two sepa-
rate issues, but rather as part of a whole. In Jewish society the religious re-
sponsibilities that had previously been those of young males and of some
women came to be reserved for adult male society. I will return to this issue in
the conclusions.
rick simeone
(Rick Simeone)
#1