were linked to theoretical understandings of the duty of procreation and of the
marriage bond as well as to social issues. These understandings shaped the ways
in which infertility was identified and diagnosed, and especially the implica-
tions of infertility.
Infertility was identified in a number of different ways. The most common
method, in both Jewish and Christian society, was a physical examination.^50 It
seems that women were examined routinely, since midwives regularly exam-
ined women who wished to conceive. For example, in Jewish communities,
midwives accompanied women on their monthly visits to the ritual bath and
were expected to help promote fertility.^51 If a woman seemed to have some
kind of physical problem, a midwife might have commented on it. In addition,
many cures and potions to promote fertility were available. It seems that the
prevailing attitude was not to let nature take its course, but rather to promote
and encourage fertility.^52
These examinations do not seem to have been common for men. The fact
that these examinations were routine for women and rare for men only em-
phasizes the implied responsibility of women concerning birth. Part of the rea-
son for this discrepancy was that, for men, such procedures incurred shame.
While it was easy to note, without a physical exam, that a man’s voice was not
deep or that he had no facial hair, a true physical exam required a more inti-
mate inspection. In Christian society, where men were also examined only in-
frequently, such examinations were usually performed by midwives.^53 We have
little evidence on this point in the Jewish sources. In one of the few references
to such an examination, R. Eliezer b. Joel haLevi (Rahaviah, ca. 1140–ca.
1212) discusses a case in which a woman claims her husband is impotent. He
mentions the possibility of verifying this accusation by having this man exam-
ined, but he says that such a procedure would involve an extreme embarrass-
ment.^54 Christian sources also discuss midwives’ examinations of men charged
with impotency and note the shame involved in such a procedure. Perhaps the
disgrace that was associated with such an examination and the accusation of a
man was behind the common opinion that male infertility was the result of
women bewitching men.^55 Many cures and charms for releasing men from be-
witchment can be found in the sources.^56
Medieval people were also aware of the fact that sometimes women and men
seemed to be fine physically and still had infertility problems. Therefore a num-
ber of other solutions existed that were supposed to enable a diagnosis of prob-
lems that had no visible manifestations.^57 For example, a thirteenth-century
manuscript of the Midrash Lekah·Tov discusses a test for determining who was
sterile and who was fertile. R. Tuviah b. Eliezer (ninth century) recommended
placing a man’s semen in a cup of cold water. If the semen takes the shape of
a man, then he is fertile and if not, he is sterile. For a woman, R. Tuviah rec-
ommended taking the leaf of a pumpkin and having the woman urinate on this
leaf. If the leaf dries up, the woman is sterile, and if not, she is fertile.^58 This
rick simeone
(Rick Simeone)
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