experiment is suggested in the medieval Latin medical treatises known as the
Trotula as well.^59 Most of the techniques proposed in the Jewish sources for test-
ing sterility involve examining women. They include inserting garlic into the
womb of the barren woman as well as a number of magical cures, such as using
the placenta of a woman who had given birth in order to aid conception.^60
Christian medical writings also include similar cures and it seems that the fer-
tility tests and cures were common to Jews and Christians.^61
These examples illustrate medieval society’s concern with solving infertility
problems. In some cases, however, these problems could not be solved. Were
there differences between the ways Jews and Christians dealt with couples di-
agnosed as infertile? Given the differing attitudes toward divorce and procre-
ation, we would expect Jewish and Christian legal authorities to propose dif-
ferent solutions in difficult cases.
Infertility As Grounds for DivorceIn medieval Christian society, if one spouse was diagnosed as barren, sterility
could serve as grounds for divorce. This issue, however, was highly controver-
sial. During the first centuries of Christianity, sterility was seen as grounds for
divorce whether the husband or the wife was held responsible for the problem.
This was also the prevailing attitude in the early Middle Ages and was, to some
extent, strengthened by Germanic attitudes toward fertility. However, in the
eighth and ninth centuries, the question of fertility as grounds for divorce was
reappraised, and new distinctions were introduced.^62 Theologians suggested
distinguishing between situations in which sterility was a problem from the
onset of a relationship and situations in which sterility ensued at some point
after marriage. From the ninth century onward, it became much more diffi-
cult to invoke infertility as grounds for divorce, especially if the couple was not
sterile at the start of their conjugal relationship. A woman who complained
that her husband was incapable of fathering a child could still obtain an an-
nulment in some cases, but, as part of the attempt to limit the number of legally
separated couples, this became increasingly difficult. Accusations concerning
infertility were investigated very thoroughly. Although impotence was gener-
ally accepted as grounds for divorce, the proofs of impotence were highly dis-
puted. Often, professionals such as midwives were employed in order to verify
such charges. If a man charged his wife with impotence, they would check the
woman and, in some cases, the man as well.^63
It is illuminating to compare the developments of Jewish attitudes toward di-
vorce in Ashkenaz, specifically in cases of infertility, to Christian developments
in the Middle Ages. There is, of course, a fundamental difference between Jew-
ish and Christian attitudes: In Jewish society, divorce was viewed more posi-
tively and was regularly contracted. Hence, in our study of attitudes toward di-
vorce in cases of infertility, we will need to compare and contrast Jewish and