The last part of the chapter will suggest a social interpretation of the ceremony
and present Jewish society in light of this ritual.
Circumcision and Baptism: Historical DevelopmentsThe obligation of circumcision appears in the Bible (Gen. 17) and refers specif-
ically to the circumcision of infant males. In later writings, such as the Mishna,
the commandment of circumcision is included among the many obligations
incumbent upon fathers educating their sons.^9 Scholars who have studied the
ritual have pointed to several phases in its development. Although it is clear that
circumcision was practiced well before the early centuries of the common era,
we have no information on how the ritual was conducted prior to the Mishna.^10
The Mishna cites the blessings said at the ceremony but provides few other de-
tails.^11 The earliest sources providing a full description of the practice of the
rite are from the Gaonic Period, in the Siddur of R. Sa’adiah Gaon and Seder
R. Amram Gaon. During this period, two elements were added to the cere-
mony that do not appear in earlier sources—a prayer in Aramaic for the new-
born and his mother, and a blessing on the wine, which became an integral
part of the ceremony.^12 The custom of preparing a chair for the prophet Elijah
was also developed at this time.^13
The obvious parallel to circumcision is baptism. From the beginning of
Christianity it was meant to replace the Jewish rite of circumcision.^14 During
the first centuries of Christianity, the differences between circumcision and
baptism were very pronounced, as circumcision remained an infant ritual,
whereas baptism was a ritual for adults who chose to convert to Christianity.^15
The tradition of baptizing infants became prominent from the fourth century
onward. Consequently, the parallels between the two ceremonies, circumci-
sion and baptism, grew. A basic difference between the two rites remained,
however—while only boys are circumcised, both girls and boys are baptized.
Despite this central gender difference between the two rituals, a difference that
also has implications for the understanding of broader differences between Ju-
daism and Christianity, I will not address this issue, as its analysis transcends
the bounds of the historical period in question.^16
Due to the importance of baptism, the ritual was often discussed during the
Middle Ages. During the early Middle Ages, the ceremony had a number of
variations, depending on the locality in which it was conducted. The ceremony
underwent reform during the Carolingian period, as part of an extensive at-
tempt to uproot the remnants of pagan customs remaining within Christian re-
ligious activities and to unify practice. Some scholars have argued that the im-
portance of baptism as a sacrament, in comparison to that of the Eucharist,
gradually diminished during the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, even if baptism
did lose some of its centrality, it remained an essential part of Christian prac-