CHIEF GOVERNORSlordship of Ireland. From the end of the twelfth century
up to the middle of the fourteenth the chief governor
was usually styled “justiciar.” In the later medieval
period the title “lieutenant” or “deputy lieutenant” was
the most common designation for the chief governor,
and the title of justiciar was only applied to those
individuals who held the post on a temporary or emer-
gency basis. While the title lieutenant was clearly
intended to convey a status higher than that of justiciar,
it has been shown that virtually all the powers vested
in the lieutenants had in fact been exercised by the
justiciars.
Origins of the Office
An office equivalent to that of chief governor had
developed in England in the twelfth century in
response to the need to provide for a deputy or regent
to act as permanent head of the administration during
the king’s frequent absences on the Continent. Such
chief officers can be identified from the reign of Henry I,
but it was not until the reign of Henry II that the
distinct office of justiciar was instituted. During the
period of the conquest of Ireland the justiciar of
England was Richard de Lucy, who acted in this
capacity until 1179 when he was replaced by Ranulf de
Glanville. A succession of holders can be traced down
to 1234. The office was revived by the baronial reform-
ers in 1258 and continued to be filled until 1265.
There was therefore an office ready-made to be
imported into Ireland, and the lists of chief governors
of Ireland usually commence in 1172, headed by
Hugh de Lacy. However, historians now argue con-
vincingly both that the office of justiciar of Ireland
did not exist under Henry II and that de Lacy cannot
be seen as the person appointed to be the king’s alter
ego in the lordship. The earliest secure use of the title
justiciar with reference to Ireland comes in 1185 with
the appointment of John de Courcy, following the
return of Prince John to England. It seems probable,
therefore, that the office was created under the lord-
ship of the king’s sons, while Henry himself adopted
a more ad hoc approach to the problem of governing
Ireland in his absence, using a combination of royal
clerks and local magnates with varying degrees of
success. This policy was similar to that used in Brit-
tany, another territory acquired by Henry II through
conquest. De Lacy’s purported elevation to justiciar
in 1172 is based on the evidence of Howden’s chron-
icle. However, there appears little justification from
other evidence to attribute to him, at this stage, a role
greater than that of custodian of Dublin. There is more
substance to assigning the role of the king’s princi-
pal agent in Ireland in these early years to William
Fitz Audelin, a competent and trusted member of
Henry II’s household. Fitz Audelin’s commission ended
late in 1173 when Strongbow returned to Ireland and
succeeded him as the king’s principal agent. From
1173 until 1176 Strongbow can be seen operating as
the king’s chief representative, although he did not
use any specific title to describe his role, nor is one
attributed to him in royal records. When Strongbow
died in 1176, Fitz Audelin was once again dispatched
to Ireland. It was only afterFitz Audelin’s permanent
departure from Ireland in 1181 that Hugh de Lacy can
be described as operating in the capacity of chief
governor.Appointment and Renumeration
Chief governors—justiciars and later, lieutenants—
were appointed by the king. The earliest surviving
instrument of appointment of a justiciar is that of
Meiler FitzHenry in 1200. The justiciar was usually
appointed for an indeterminate period of time “during
the king’s pleasure,” but in the later fourteenth century
the custom developed of appointing the lieutenant for
a set term of years. The chief governor was advised
on matters of policy and administrative business by a
council made up of the chief ministers and some of
the important resident magnates. The composition and
meetings of the council became more formalized dur-
ing the course of the thirteenth century. The council
had no fixed center but, like the justiciar, was endlessly
itinerant. In certain circumstances, when speedy action
was required, the council could appoint a chief gover-
nor and receive royal confirmation later.
The justiciar’s salary is first referred to in 1226,
when Geoffrey de Marisco was granted £580 a year
for the custody of Ireland. Two years later it was fixed
at £500 a year for Richard de Burgh, and this remained
the standard sum for the rest of the Middle Ages. This
sum was expected to provide for the custody of castles
and for the justiciar’s own men-at-arms, while the
royal service due to the king was to provide for other
military expenses. In the course of the fourteenth cen-
tury justiciars and lieutenants began to enter their
office by way of indenture with the king. These inden-
tures set out the military forces to be maintained by
the chief governors and the payments they were to
receive over and above the set fee. With the increasing
disorder that characterized the second half of the four-
teenth century, these payments increased exponen-
tially. In 1369, William of Windsor was to have the
considerable sum of £20,000 for military purposes.
Until the end of the thirteenth century the justiciar
was required to render an account to the king of all
receipts and issues during his period of office. Very few