occupied at times of danger (i.e., as might be suggested
by their occasional remoteness and difficulty of
access). There is certainly plenty of historical evidence
that many were attacked and burned during raids and
warfare, and the evidence for weaponry and the
impressive scale of their timber and roundwood pali-
sades does suggest a military or fortress role for some.
In the north midlands, most crannogs are situated on
modern barony boundaries, suggesting that they were
formerly situated at the edges and frontiers of early
medieval territories. Both archaeology and historical
sources also suggest that at least some medieval cran-
nogs were high-status or even royal sites used for
feasting, as redistribution centers for the patronage of
crafts and industry, and for projecting through their
size and architecture the power and wealth of their
owners. Early medieval crannogs such as Lagore (Co.
Meath) and Island MacHugh (Co. Tyrone) certainly
could be interpreted as the island residences of kings
or nobles, perhaps being used as summer lodges,
defensive strongholds, and as places for management
of public gatherings and assemblies. Some early medi-
eval crannogs have also been associated with the
patronage and control of craft production (typically
metalworking). For instance, Moynagh Lough (Co.
Meath), a probable lordly crannog, particularly during
its mid-eighth-century occupation phase, was clearly
a place where various specialist craft workers resided
and worked. In contrast, Bofeenaun crannog on Lough
More (Co. Mayo) appears to have been an isolated site
devoted to the processing of iron ore, and may have
been the forge of a blacksmith intent on preserving the
secrets of his craft.
On the other hand, it is clear from archaeological
surveys that most crannogs were essentially small island
or lakeshore dwellings, occupied at various times by
different people, not necessarily of high social status.
Recent archaeological excavations at Sroove, on Lough
Gara (Co. Sligo) have suggested that some small, early
medieval crannogs were the habitations of social groups
or households who had little wealth or political power.
Indeed, several crannogs have produced relatively mod-
est material assemblages and could be interpreted as the
island homesteads of the “middle classes,” with most
activity focused on cattle herding and arable crop pro-
duction along the lakeshore. Others may have been used
periodically, seasonally, or for particular specific tasks.
In other words, different types of crannogs were built,
used, and occupied by various social classes in medieval
Ireland.
Moreover, while there is commonly an image of
early medieval crannogs as secular dwellings, it is also
likely that many were used by the church, given the
significant role of the church in the early medieval
settlement landscape. The discovery of early medieval
ecclesiastical metalwork (handbells, crosses, and
bookshrines) on some midlands crannogs (occasion-
ally in proximity to actual church sites and monaster-
ies) suggests their use as shrine islands for storage of
relics, or perhaps even as island hermitages (akin to
the small hermitages occasionally found off monastic
islands on the Atlantic coast).Conclusions
In conclusion, despite being a subject of interest for
over a hundred years, there is much that remains to be
discovered and interpreted about crannogs in medieval
Ireland. Recent studies have adopted multidisciplinary
approaches, further exploring the social, cultural, and
ideological perception of islands and crannogs among
medieval communities, and thence how they were used
to negotiate social identities of power, gender, and
kinship. It is also likely that future projects will stress
the importance of understanding medieval crannogs
within their wider social and cultural landscapes, in
both regional and local terms.
AIDANO’SULLIVANReferences and Further Reading
Bradley, John. “Excavations at Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath.”
Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 111
(1991): 5–26.
Fredengren, Christina. Crannogs: A Study of People’s Interac-
tion with Lakes, with Particular Reference to Lough Gara
in the North-West of Ireland. Bray: Wordwell Books, 2002.
Kelly, E. P. “Observations on Irish Lake-Dwellings.” In Studies
in Insular Art and Archaeology, edited by Catherine Karkov
and Robert Farrell, 81–98. (American Early Medieval Stud-
ies 1) Cornell: 1991.
O’Sullivan, Aidan. The Archaeology of Lake Settlement in
Ireland. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy/The Discovery Pro-
gram, 1998.
O’Sullivan, Aidan. Crannogs: Lake-Dwellings in Early Ireland.
Dublin: Town House, 2000.
O’Sullivan, Aidan. “Crannogs in Late Medieval Gaelic Ireland,
c.1350–c.1650.” In Gaelic Ireland: Land, Lordship and Set-
tlement, c. 1250–c.1650, edited by P. J. Duffy, D. Edwards,
and E. Fitzpatrick, 397–417. Dublin: Four Courts Press,
2001.
O’Sullivan, Aidan. “Crannogs—Places of Resistance in the
Contested Landscapes of Early Modern Ireland.” In Con-
tested Landscapes: Landscapes of Movement and Exile,
edited by Barbara Bender and Margot Winer, 87–101.
Oxford: Berg, 2001.
See alsoAgriculture; Archaeology; Craftwork;
Ecclesiastical Settlements; Houses; RingfortsCRUTHNI
The term “Cruthni” was applied to a number of early
Irish population groups by the writers of Old and Mid-
dle Irish, although it is unclear whether it represents aCRANNÓGA/CRANNOGS