milk were the basic foodstuffs consumed and that these
were supplemented for proteins, minerals, and flavoring
by meat, vegetables, and fruit (Lucas 1960; Ó Corráin
1972, 51–61; Kelly 1997, 316–59). Early Irish laws
indicate that the range of cereals grown and eaten
included oats, barley, wheat, and rye, used for making
bread, porridges, cakes, and beer. Different grains were
accorded different status, and according to early Irish
laws (typically seventh to eighth century A.D.) wheaten
bread was a high-status food (Sexton 1998). There is
abundant archaeological evidence for drying of cereal
grain in corn-drying kilns and the grinding of grain in
both domestic rotary querns and horizontal mills. Veg-
etables for soups were grown in small gardens around
the dwelling, and included cainnenn (probably
onions), celery, and possibly parsnips or carrots, peas,
beans and kale. Wild garlic and herbs may also have
been gathered in the woods, along with apples (which
were grown in orchards), wild berries, and nuts.
Early Medieval Milk and Meats
Between the seventh and the tenth century A.D. (and
after), cattle were primarily kept to provide milk and
allits products: cream, butter, curds, and cheeses, as
well as thickened, soured, and skimmed milk drinks, all
referred to in old Irish as bánbíd(white foods). As
argued by McCormick, faunal analyses of cattle bones
from the large middens found on early medieval cran-
nogs such as Moynagh Lough and Lagore (Co. Meath)
and Sroove (Co. Sligo) also indicate that cattle herds
were carefully managed for dairying (McCormick
1987). Rennet from calves and sheep was used in
making cheese, while butter was clearly made in large
amounts. Wooden buckets, tubs, and churns recovered
from early medieval Crannogs also indicate the prepa-
ration and storage of such produce, while tubs of “bog
butter” may have been placed in bogs for preservation.
However, meat was also important and evidently
eaten by both rich and poor (to judge from the ubiq-
uitous amounts of animal bone found on settlement
sites). There is a strong sense, though, that meat was
more commonly consumed by the prosperous members
of society. Beef was eaten in large amounts, typically
being from the unwanted, slaughtered male calves and
aged milch cows. Pigs were the source of fresh pork
and salt bacon, sausages, and black puddings. Sheep
were kept for mutton, lamb meat, and milk. Wild ani-
mals that were hunted and trapped (mostly for sport
by the nobility) included deer, wild boar, and badger.
It is also evident that Ireland’s relatively restricted
range of freshwater fish species (e.g, salmon, trout, and
eels) were caught in fishweirs. In coastal regions, shell-
fish (limpets, periwinkles, oysters, mussels, cockles,
and scallops) were gathered on rocky foreshores, for
both food and industrial purposes. The shells were
frequently discarded in large middens, perhaps adja-
cent to unenclosed coastal settlements. Seals and wild-
fowl may have been occasionally hunted, while
stranded porpoises and whales may also have been
used when the opportunity arose. Edible seaweeds,
such as dulse, were also gathered for food. Some poten-
tial foods were regarded as taboo. Therefore, carrion
and dog were avoided, while the church banned the
eating of horse meat (although there is archaeological
evidence for its occasional consumption).
The feast (fled) was an important institution in early
Irish society, being held, for example, during seasonal
festivals or to commemorate a royal inauguration. At an
early medieval feast, the distribution of different cuts of
meat was probably made on the basis of social rank
( McCormick 2002). Early Irish historical sources (e.g.,
laws, wisdom texts, narrative literature) also suggest that
social ranking had a profound inf luence on the foods
that people generally ate, with the nobility eating more
meats, honey, onions, and wheat. Wine was also
imported by Gaulish and Frankish traders, while more
exotic spices and condiments may also have been
brought into the island in glass and pottery vessels. If
the early Irish diet was balanced and healthy, there were
also periods of famine and hunger (particularly at stages
in the sixth and seventh centuries), and the occasional
long winters would have led to food supplies running out.Hiberno-Norse Towns
In Hiberno-Norse Dublin in the tenth and eleventh cen-
turyA.D., archaeological and palaeobotanical evidenceWooden churn, Lissue, Co. Antrim. Photograph reproduced
with the kind permission of the Trustees of the National
Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland.
DIET AND FOOD