AGRICULTURE
of oxen. The usual term for such a team is seisrech,
which contains the numeral sé, “six,” so it is possible
that all six oxen were yoked simultaneously. It was
probably more usual, however, for four oxen to be
used. They seem to have been yoked abreast and led
by a front plowman (cennairem) walking backwards
ahead of his team, while a rear plowman (tónairem)
directed them from behind. The Old Irish law texts
contain no mention of the coulter (coltar), but it is
referred to in twelfth-century commentary. Harrow-
ing was carried out by horses. After the young corn
appeared, it was kept free from weeds, of which the
most pernicious was darnel (díthen), which has poi-
sonous seeds. The law texts also lay down heavy
penalties on the owners of marauding livestock that
damage growing corn. When ripe, the cornstalks were
cut with a sickle, and the ears of corn collected in a
reaping-basket. The ears were then threshed with a
stick or flail (súist), and dried in a kiln (áith). The
dried corn was stored in a barn (saball); a fragmen-
tary law text on cats stresses that the cat should patrol
the area around the barn to keep mice away. Writing
in the late twelfth century, Giraldus Cambrensis
refers to mice as a particular pest in Ireland.
Apart from cereals, other plants featured in the early
Irish diet. The texts refer occasionally to peas and
beans, and it is likely that both were normally kiln
dried and stored for winter use. Another vegetable that
is frequently mentioned in the Old Irish texts is cain-
nenn, which probably means “onion.” It was clearly
grown in fairly large quantities, as it formed part of
the food-rent which a client paid to his lord. Smaller
quantities of other vegetables were also grown, includ-
ingbraisech (cabbage),foltchép (chives), borrlus
(leek?),imus(celery?), and cerrbacán(skirret?). The
medico-legal text Bretha Crólige emphasizes the
importance of vegetables in the diet of invalids. Apples
and plums seem to have been grown on a small scale
in the early period, but cultivated pears and cherries
were evidently not introduced until after the Norman
invasion. The main dye-plants were woad (glaisen) and
madder (roid).
Cattle
Cattle occupied a position of central importance in
early Irish society, and feature prominently throughout
Old and Middle Irish literature. Fines, tributes, fees,
and other payments were commonly expressed in
terms of cattle, the standard unit being the milk cow
(bó mlicht). Cattle were valued primarily for their milk
and for milk-products such as butter and cheese. Beef
was also consumed, and hides were used for making
shoes, bags, belts, and the like. Early Irish cattle seem
generally to have been small and black—much like
modern Kerry cattle—but there are also references to
red, brown, dun-colored, and white cattle. There is no
mention of the provision of hay for livestock in doc-
uments from the pre-Norman period. The Old Irish law
texts refer to the practice of keeping an area of “pre-
served grass” to nourish the cattle over the winter, and
there is also mention of branches of holly and ivy being
supplied as winter fodder. In the summer, it was clearly
a frequent practice for cattle and other livestock to be
driven off to hills or other rough ground where they
grazed under the care of herdsmen. At night they were
kept in a pen (búaile), whence the Anglicized term
“booleying.” This practice was regularly opposed by
English officials. For example, in 1595, Edmund
Spenser denounced the “Irish manner of keeping boo-
lies in the summer upon the mountains and living after
that savage sort.”Other Livestock
Sheep were kept primarily for their wool, but were
also valued for their meat and milk. The Old Irish
law texts assign greater value to white sheep than to
dun-colored or black sheep. In the twelfth century,
Giraldus Cambrensis commented on the prevalence
of black sheep in Ireland, and it is likely that larger
white-fleeced breeds were introduced after the
Anglo-Norman invasion. There is less mention of
goats in Irish sources, and in legal commentary their
value is lower than that of sheep. The flesh of the
pig was prized beyond that of any other animal, and
roast pig was the traditional main dish at feasts. Pigs
were commonly fattened up on acorns in the woods.
The Old Irish law text Críth Gablachstates that a
well-to-do farmer should own a horse for riding as
well as a workhorse. In about the late thirteenth
century, the great plow-horse, which was originally
developed on the Continent for military use, was
introduced to Ireland, and by the end of the fifteenth
century it seems that oxen were largely superseded
for this purpose. The Old Irish law texts contain
many references to hens, and there is occasional
mention of ducks and geese. A separate law text is
devoted to honeybees, which indicates that they were
of considerable economic importance. Doves may
have been reared for consumption in early Irish mon-
asteries, but there seem to be no records of dovecotes
in this country until after the Anglo-Norman invasion.
Therabbit was an Anglo-Norman introduction, and
elaborate warrens were constructed to house them.
Fishponds—mainly for introduced species such as
perch,carp, and pike—were a regular feature of the
Anglo-Norman manor.