[See also: JEWELRY AND METALWORKING; MEROVINGIAN ART]
Haseloff, Günther.“Salin’s Style I.” Medieval Archaeology 18 (1974):1–15.
Lasko, Peter. The Kingdom of the Franks: Northwest Europe Before Charlemagne. London:
Thames and Hudson, 1971.
Nees, Lawrence. Justinian to Charlemagne: European Art, 565–787: An Annotated Bibliography.
Boston: Hall, 1985.
Périn, Patrick, and Laure-Charlotte Feffer. Les Francs. Paris: Colin, 1987.
Roth, Helmut. Kunst der Völkerwanderungszeit. Supplement-band 4 of Propylaen Kunstgeschichte.
Frankfurt am Main: Propylaen, 1979.
MILITARY ARCHITECTURE
. Both the castle complex and urban defenses in medieval France relied upon strong walls
and gateways designed to prevent entrance to enemies and ensure access for allies. River
towns and ports had fortified bridges and special defenses. Bastide towns, fortified towns
of French origin, were forms of military architecture on the grand scale of the urban
landscape. Designs of temporary defensive or offensive war machines, technological
innovations, and social and economic factors all affected the construction of these works.
During the 12th and 13th centuries, building techniques and weapons improved due to
the increased exchanges between cultures and technological advances in metallurgy.
More town walls and castles were made of stone, and designs of defensive fortifications
aspired to incorporate the idea of effective counterattacks.
In the first half of the 13th century, advances in the design and construction of main
gateways included the addition of flanking towers and added height to three or four
stories in total. Portcullises, machicolations, meurtrières, and two-leaved doors helped to
defend the gateway passages. A system of shod-iron portcullises operated by ropes and
pulleys stood in front of the door, and machicolations opening out into the vault or roof
of the gateway stood either between the portcullis and the door or in front of the
portcullis. The gateway held two or three sets of these defenses, with an additional
machicolation at the gate itself. Such protection deterred surprise attacks and allowed
inspection of those entering.
Fortified bridges from the 13th century were protected on the far side by a barbican or
tête-du-pont. At Tournai, a fortified bridge protected the curtain walls on either side of
the River Scheldt. The surviving Pont des Trous is a three-span covered bridge, pierced
by loopholes on both sides and defended by a strong square tower at either end. At
Cahors, the enormous six-span Pont Valentré has a tower at each end and a third tower
over the middle of the bridge. A fortified gateway in each tower is defended by an
embattled parapet, and the two end towers also have machicolations.
In the early 13th centuries, new fortified towns called bastides were planned in
southwest France and in England and Wales. The prototype of the bastide was
Montauban, founded in 1144 by Alphonse-Jourain, count of Toulouse, to guard the road
to Toulouse. Its grid plan with market square was copied by princes, counts, and minor
lords throughout the 13th century. Many bastides held strategic positions on the frontiers
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