By the late 14th century, symbols and note shapes multiplied, allowing the notation of
rhythmic complexities to a point not again approached until the 20th century.
In the 15th century, the plethora of notational symbols was reduced, but often,
especially in the sacred and ceremonial compositions of such composers as Dufay,
Ockeghem, or Busnoys, proportional mensural complexities added a level of number
symbolism and signification to the music that only recently has begun to be studied. In
addition, the increased utilization of paper instead of parchment led to the creation of
hollow note shapes—“white” notation—less apt to penetrate the more fragile surface of
the page. The result is closer to the appearance of modern musical notation than the
earlier, “black” notation.
Sandra Pinegar/Lawrence Earp
[See also: ANONYMOUS 4; ARS NOVA; ARS SUBTILIOR; FRANCO OF
COLOGNE; JEHAN DES MURS; MUSIC THEORY; MUSICAL NOTATION
(NEUMATIC); PHILIPPE DE VITRY; PIERRE DE LA CROIX; RHYTHMIC MODE]
Apel, Willi. The Notation of Polyphonic Music 900–1600. 5th ed. Cambridge: Mediaeval Academy
of America, 1953.
Berger, Anna Maria Busse. Mensuration and Proportion Signs: Origins and Evolution. Oxford:
Clarendon, 1993.
Gallo, F.Alberto. “Figura and Regula: Notation and Theory in the Tradition of Musica
mensurabilis.” In Studien zur Tradition in der Musik: Kurt von Fischer zum 60. Geburtstag, ed.
Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht and Max Lütolf. Munich: Musikverlag Katzbichler, 1973, pp. 43–48.
MUSICAL PERFORMANCE PRACTICE
. There is only sketchy evidence of the way in which music was performed during the
Middle Ages. It was not the custom to provide directions for performance on the music
itself, as in the present century, perhaps because the practices themselves were so
commonplace that no one felt the need to write them down. A great deal of latitude was
given to the performer concerning aspects of performance, such as tempo, amount and
placement of ornamentation, use of instrumental accompaniment, and in some repertories
even the actual rhythm of the melody. Some information can be gained from theoretical
treatises, literature, and iconography, but in many areas we have an unclear impression of
the practices.
The vast majority of sacred music during the Middle Ages was monophonic (single-
line) chant, which was entirely sung either by a soloist or by the choir in unison, or by a
combination of the two, depending on the service and the item. In the 9th century, a
practice arose of providing sacred music with additional lines, hence polyphony. This
was performed in a variety of ways, depending upon the type of polyphony and the
occasion. In some works, a soloist, or perhaps a small group of soloists, sang a highly
ornate top line, accompanied by from one to three others who sang a slower-moving
lower line. Other polyphonic compositions, in which the parts were relatively equal, were
performed by soloists on each line. On festive occasions, polyphonic sections in either of
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