Berry and Burgundy, the University of Paris (led by Jean Gerson and Pierre d’Ailly), and
the French clergy (influenced by Simon de Cramaud), actively promoted this strategy.
Benedict XIII (r. 1394–1417), a French cardinal elected to succeed Clement, and
Boniface IX (r. 1389–1404), Urban’s successor in Rome, both rejected the idea of
abdication, for each thought his line to be legitimate. In order to force compliance with
the via cessionis, the French introduced the idea of “subtraction of obedience,” which
sought to limit papal authority and revenues in order to force the two claimants to resign.
“Subtraction of obedience” to Benedict XIII was declared by the French clergy on July
27, 1398, with Simon de Cramaud as the chief architect of the policy, which he
articulated in De subtraccione obediencie. Both popes and their successors remained
obdurate, however, even in light of pressures that included a provision in the elections
that the successors of Boniface IX would abdicate if Benedict XIII or one of his
successors should abdicate.
The idea of calling a general council of the church (via consilii, or “conciliarism”)
began to gain prominence again in the 1390s, but the general councils of the church in the
11th, 12th, and 13th centuries (Clermont, the third and fourth Lateran councils, and the
councils of Vienne, for example) had all been called by the pope. The University of Paris,
led by Gerson and d’Ailly, urged that a general council of the church be called, if need be
by the civil power, because the earliest councils had been summoned by Constantine and
other emperors. The two colleges of cardinals were finally persuaded to unite and to call
a council, which met in Pisa in 1409. Bishops and others from both “obediences”
attended, and the two claimants were deposed and a new pope was chosen, Alexander V
(r. 1409–10). The supposed solution served only to complicate matters, for the popes in
the Avignon and Roman lines refused to accept the judgment of the council. Benedict
XIII and Gregory XII (r. 1406–15) continued to claim legitimacy, although in reality
most leaders in Europe gave allegiance to the new “Pisan” pope, Alexander. Finally, a
new council, supported by the emperor Sigismund and called by the cardinals and
Alexander’s successor, John XXIII (r. 1410–15)—not recognized in the accepted line of
popes, so a name/number reused in the 20th century—assembled at Constance in 1414.
This major gathering of European leaders, ecclesiastical and secular, determined to end
the schism and to reform the church “head and members.” The “way of the council” (via
concilii) succeeded in restoring the unity of the headship of the church by deposing two
claimants (Benedict XIII and John XXIII), accepting the abdication of the Roman one
(Gregory XII) and electing Odo Colonna as Martin V (r. 1417–31). The council also
addressed the question of heresy (it executed Jan Hus), established the idea of the reform
of the church through regularly scheduled councils (the decree Frequens), and declared
the superiority of a council over the pope (the decree Haec sancta synodus [or
Sacrosanctal). Martin V immediately established concordats with the major European
leaders that effectively limited papal power in significant ways within the various
European kingdoms, thus establishing in France certain of the sought-for Gallican
liberties. Martin’s successors succeeded in overcoming the impetus for full-blown
“conciliarism” in the church, and the papal monarchy gradually reasserted itself over the
claims of conciliarists.
Grover A.Zinn
[See also: CONCILIAR MOVEMENT; D’AILLY, PIERRE; GALLICANISM;
GERSON, JEAN; SUBTRACTION OF OBEDIENCE; URBAN V]
The Encyclopedia 1623