experiential criteria that had been developed in a slow and complex historical process.
Women’s religious experience in the 14th and 15th centuries reached the limits of what
seemed patriarchally tolerable; it was mirrored in the all-consuming annihilation of the
stake, a far cry from the community-affirming miracles of a St. Radegund and the
peacemaking efforts of a Balthild 900 years earlier.
Ulrike Wiethaus
[See also: BÉGUINES; BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX; CHRISTINA MIRABILIS;
CISTERCIAN ORDER; DOMINICAN ORDER; EUCHARISTIC VENERATION AND
VESSELS; FRANCISCAN ORDER; GILDUIN OF SAINT-VICTOR; HADEWIJCH;
HÉLOÏSE; HERESY; JEANNE D’ARC; JULIANA OF MONT-CORNILLON;
LUITGARD OF AYWIÈRES; MARGUERITE D’OINGT; MARGUERITE PORETE;
MARIE D’OIGNIES; MYSTICISM; NUNNERIES; RADEGUND;
WALDO/WALDENSES]
Barstow, Anne Llewellyn. “Joan of Arc and Female Mysticism.” Journal of Feminist Studies in
Religion 1(1985):29–42.
Bynum, Caroline Walker. Fragmentation and Redemption: Essays on Gender and the Human Body
in Medieval Religion. New York: Zone, 1991.
Johnson, Penelope D. Equal in Monastic Profession: Religious Women in Medieval France.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
McNamara, Jo Ann, John E.Halborg, and E.Gordon Whatley, eds. and trans. Sainted Women of the
Dark Ages. Durham: Duke University Press, 1992.
Maisonneuve, Roland. “L’expérience mystique et visionnaire de Marguerite d’Oingt (d. 1310),
moniale chartreuse.” In Kartausermystik und -Mystiker, ed. James Hogg. Salzburg: Institut für
Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 1981, Vol. 1, pp. 81–103.
May, William Harold. “The Confession of Na Prous Boneta, Heretic and Heresiarch.” In Essays in
Medieval Life and Thought, ed. John H.Mundy et al. New York: Columbia University Press,
1955, pp. 3–30.
Mundy, John H. Men and Women at Toulouse in the Age of the Cathars. Toronto: Pontifical
Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1990.
Pernoud, Régine. La femme au temps des cathédrales. Paris: Stock, 1984.
Schweitzer, Franz Josef. “Von Marguerite von Porete (d. 1310) bis Mme Guyon (d. 1717):
Frauenmystik im Konflikt mit der Kirche.” In Frauenmystik im Mittelalter, ed. Peter
Dinzelbacher and Dieter Bauer. Ostfildern bei Stuttgart: Schwabenverlag, 1985, pp. 256–75.
Wemple, Suzanne Fonay. “Female Spirituality and Mysticism in Frankish Monasticism: Radegund,
Balthild and Aldegund.” In Peaceweavers: Medieval Religious Women, ed. John A. Nichols and
Lillian Thomas Shank. Kalamazoo: Cistercian, 1987, pp. 39–55.
WOMEN IN TRADE
. Case studies have shown that women throughout medieval France were deeply involved
in trade, despite limitations placed upon their participation. Their activities, though
concentrated in the textile and food trades—the stereotypical spinsters and brewsters—
could, depending on the region, be as varied as moneychanger or moneylender (a status
noted for Jewish women in northern France), manuscript illuminator, or precious-metal
worker. Wives and daughters of craftsmen frequently worked with the male family
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