CONCILIAR MOVEMENT
. Conciliarism, like papalism, had its roots in the medieval heritage, especially in the
diverse texts found in Gratian’s Decretum. The dominant ecclesiology from Gratian to
the Great Schism was papalist; but key texts suggested that popes had erred in the past—
and could again. Critics, among them the emperor Frederick II, argued for convocation of
a general council to correct a pope; and a different group, many masters at the University
of Paris, were episcopalists, defending the rights of bishops and curates against the
encroachments by the friars that the papacy had authorized. The earliest episcopalist,
William of Saint-Amour, was driven into exile; and Jean de Pouilli was condemned for
heresy by Pope John XXII. These privileges, too, found apologists, especially among the
Dominicans, including Hervaeus Natalis and Pierre de la Palu, prominent figures at
Avignon. Other controversies, especially those concerned with Franciscan poverty,
helped shape opinion on papal and conciliar power. Even condemned writers like
William of Ockham and Marsilius of Padua continued to be read, especially in Paris.
These arguments over poverty and privileges paled before the problems that arose in
1378 with the outbreak of the Great Schism. Christendom became divided between two
pretenders to the papal throne. The princes chose sides, supporting either Urban VI (r.
1378–89) or Clement VII (r. 1378–94), usually along the lines of their alliances in the
Hundred Years’ War. Efforts to end this crisis, vindicating the cherished ideal of
ecclesiastical unity, were complicated by the interests of princes and prelates; and a
deeper critique of the institution than that of popular heresy appeared in the universities.
John Wyclif in England and somewhat later John Hus in Bohemia argued that the
corrupt, indulgence-selling church of their time was not the True Church. Nor could
sinful priests celebrate the sacraments validly. These doctrines won popular support in
the Lollard and Hussite movements; and some of the clergy realized that solution of the
Schism had to be coupled with reform of the institution and defense of the faith.
The conciliar movement, which sought to accomplish these goals through convocation
of a general council, was slow to appear. A council first was suggested in 1378 by the
Italian cardinals. More detailed proposals were prepared in Paris by the theologian Henry
of Langenstein and the canonist Conrad of Gelnhausen. Obstacles to holding a council
lay in the canon law, which required convocation of such an assembly by the pope, and in
the policies of princes. Most notably, Charles V expelled from Paris all those masters
who would not support Clement VII, the claimant resident at Avignon. Langenstein and
Gelnhausen left for Germany, where conciliarism soon took root.
From 1378 to the end of the 14th century, other solutions to the Schism were sought,
especially through mutual renunciation by both pretenders, which would safeguard the
benefices of clergy adhering to either. The French, divided between Burgundian and
Armagnac interests, sought a solution in partial or complete “subtraction of obedience”
from the two pretenders, the latter approach a policy promoted for the duke of Berry by
Simon de Cramaud. This period saw a revival of episcopalism at Paris, which helped
prepare the way for the emergence of Gallicanism by linking the interests of the secular
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