the Sumatran forests. Sumatra also became known for its pepper, as did Java,
where a new variety with a distinct taste somewhat like allspice was reputed
to be effective in treating respiratory problems. The most profitable of these
new products, however, came from islands 2,000 miles east of the Malacca
Straits. Whereas pepper and cinnamon were available in various places, the
so-called“fine spices”–cloves, nutmeg, and mace–came only from a few
islands in the Molucca and Banda seas, often referred to collectively as the Spice
Islands. If today these spices have been relegated to the back of the spice rack
in most kitchens, in the past they were in great demand by those who could
afford to pay premium prices. Cloves are sun dried unopenedflower buds
from the evergreen clove tree. It is a strong spice with a hottishflavor and
perfume-like scent. In Europe it was used toflavor meats and sauces while
clove oil was used as an anesthetic and breath freshener. Nutmeg and mace
are different parts of the same product. Nutmeg is the kernel of the fruit of
another evergreen tree used in sweet and savory dishes and considered to be
an aid to digestion. It was especially popular in northern India and was later
used toflavor beer in Europe. The nutmeg seed is wrapped in a membrane,
basically a rind, from which mace is produced. Itsflavor is a subtle combination
of nutmeg, pepper, and cinnamon, and it was often used in sauces.
Thefine spices appear to have entered the long-distance trade network in
detectable quantities in the latefirst millenniumBCE. Cloves were being used
in China by the third centuryBCEand reached Rome in time for Pliny to
include a discussion on them. The island of Java, more than 1,000 miles
from the Molucca and Banda islands, proved crucial to this trade. Javanese
ships brought staples, especially rice, which could be grown in abundance on
Java, to the Spice Islanders to trade for their valuable products. On the
return voyage Javanese ships sailed west on the same winds that took Indian
and Chinese ships from Java to their home ports. When winds changed,
everyone would go in the opposite direction, meaning that the ships taking
these spices to their ultimate destinations were never in Javanese ports at the
same time as the ships bringing the spices from the places they originated.
Consequently, everyone outside of Java assumed that the spices were pro-
duced in Java. On the Spice Islands, large-scale production catapulted the
people of these societies from hunter–gatherers into trade states that were
soon building their own micro-empires.
With the center of long-distance trade in Southeast Asia shifting south-
ward, new polities arose, intent on protecting, taxing, and controlling the
trade. In the seventh centuryCEa group of ports centering on the city of
Palembang in southeastern Sumatra came together to form what was prob-
ably a trade-based confederation (although it is often referred to as an
“empire”) known as Srivijaya. The key to its success was the co-opting of
local pirates whose notoriety was a major reason that ships had earlier pre-
ferred the Kra portage. The pirates agreed to protect rather than plunder
passing ships in return for a cut of the tariff fees. Srivijaya, at times in
The all-water route 119