The great enigma of Harappan foreign trade is not exports but imports. In
some way the Mesopotamians had to pay for those carnelian beads and ivory
combs, but no clearly identifiable remains of Mesopotamian goods have been
recovered at Harappan sites. This suggests invisible exports, and the
Sumerians are known to have traded grain and textiles to other people.
Unfortunately, this does notfit well since the Harappans also produced a
grain surplus and had their ownfine textiles. A more likely import would be
copper from Magan, indicating a more complex system in which Harappan
products could end up in Ur, but Sumerian products did not necessarily have
to end up in Mohenjo-Daro. Nevertheless, the Sumerians had to be more
than consumers.
The island of Bahrain had springs that allowed for the cultivation of some
grain and dates, but overall both Dilmun and Magan had very limited
agricultural potential. Sumerian documents always mention cereals, espe-
cially barley, as one of two major exports to the Gulf, and Sumerian food
allowed for the development of a considerable urban population in Dilmun.
The other major Mesopotamian export was wool and woolen textiles, espe-
cially garments, huge quantities of which could be turned out in royal
workshops. Other products included sesame and linseed oils and leather
goods. From beyond Mesopotamia came silver and possibly cedar wood. One
temple document specifies that the following consignment of goods be
traded for copper: 3,600 pounds of wool, 70 garments, 330 gallons of lin-
seed oil, and 180 leather products.
All of the Mesopotamian exports were perishable except for silver, which
was recyclable: in other words, they are all archaeologically invisible.
Fortunately, there are textual sources; unfortunately they often designate
Dilmun as their destination regardless of where the product ultimately ended
up. Thus, there is no indication of what, if anything, went all the way to
India. Probably the safest guess is that the Harappans imported metals,
copper from Magan and silver from Mesopotamia, which the Sumerians got
from Anatolia. With the Sumerians supporting the Dilmunites and
Maganites with food, and the Dilmunites handling andfinessing the overall
exchange, the Sumerians did not have to give the Harappans the exact value
of goods they received from them.
The organization of Persian Gulf trade from the Mesopotamian side was
similar to land-based trade in that government and temple control were
prominent in the earlier period, reaching a peak under Ur III. This changed
in the early second millennium BCEwhen commerce shifted into private
hands directed by Sumerian families referred to in the texts as the“Dilmun
traders.”Under Sargon’s empire, Dilmun, Magan, and Melukha were all
considered to be trading partners. Mention of Melukha fades under Ur III,
but Magan is still prominent; later only Dilmun is mentioned. This may be
connected with the shift to private enterprise. Merchant families, however
wealthy, could not provide the capital put up by the state and temples, and
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