number of donkeys. The Nubians and the Kushites further up the Nile were
famous for their herds of cattle, which brought high prices in Egypt. An
interesting piece of Nubian ware from the late fourth millenniumBCEhas
turned up in the Sumerian colony of Habula Kabira in Syria, which doubt-
less came via Egypt. Other products from farther south included ivory,
animal skins (particularly leopard), ebony, and incense, for which there was a
tremendous demand in Egypt. What the Egyptians used in payment is less
clear but is believed to have included copper, gems, textiles, clothing, wine,
beer, oil, honey, faience, and stone products. The Egyptians established a
trading post at Buhen near the second cataract early in the third millennium,
from which expeditions set out southward to the Dongola Reach area of
Kush between the third and fourth cataracts. Inc. 2300BCEthey dugfive
channels to overcome obstacles in thefirst cataract that allowed ships to
penetrate by river. Four centuries later these passages were cleared so that
much larger vessels could be accommodated. Work was also done on the
second cataract to allow ships to be dragged across it.
The best documented Egyptian expeditions southward were led by
Harkhuf, who lived in the late twenty-fourth to the early twenty-third cen-
turiesBCEand left an account of his adventures on the walls of his tomb.
Harkhuf was no petty trader but a high court official with a list of impress-
ive titles, including“Adviser to the Pharaoh for All Affairs South of Upper
Egypt.”He made four trips to the land of Yam, which is difficult to pin-
point except that it was somewhere south of Lower Nubia. His father
accompanied him on thefirst of these, which was intended mainly tofind
the best way to get to Yam although it is clear that they were not thefirst
Egyptians to go to this country. They accomplished their mission in seven
months and returned with an unspecified load of goods identified as“gifts”
or“tribute”(depending on translation).
Harkhuf went on the second expedition alone, which took eight months, and
again he returned with large quantities of goods“of a kind which nobody
had ever brought to Egypt before.”On the third trip he took the oasis road.
He found the King of Yam busy fighting the Tjemehu (Libyan desert
nomads), who were also enemies of the Egyptians, so Harkhuf joined him.
After what was apparently a successful campaign, Harkhuf returned home
via the river road with 300 donkeys“laden with incense, ebony, hekenu oil
[for perfume], grain, panther skins, ivory, boomerangs, [and] all kinds of
beautiful and good products.”The King of Yam provided him with a sub-
stantial military escort lest the King of Irtjet, who controlled Lower Nubia,
attempted to plunder the caravan. The King of Irtjet was so intimidated he
sent bulls and other livestock to Harkhuf as his own gifts and personally
guided him through some tricky hill passages. As for the fourth expedition,
it is not mentioned in the account detailing the other three but is referred to
in a letter the pharaoh sent to Harkhuf that was copied verbatim on another
part of the tomb. Gifts are mentioned, but, as in expeditions one and two,
Land of gold 43