- Among more modern translations, that in Spanish
by the Hebraist Igancio González Llubera, Viajes de
Benjamín de Tudela (Madrid, 1918), is of importance
for its erudite notes and critical apparatus. The modern
Spanish translation by Magdalena is generally excellent,
but unfortunately he did not utilize the notes in Asher
and thus there are several errors.
Further Reading
The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela. Ed. and trans. M. N. Adler.
London, 1907; reprt. 1964.
The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela. Trans. A. Asher. 2 vols.
London and Berlin, 1840.
Libro de Viajes de Benjamín de Tudela. Trans. J. R. Magdalena
Nom de Déu. Barcelona, 1982.
Norman Roth
BENOÎT DE SAINTE-MAURE (fl. 1160–70)
Little is known about Benoît de Sainte-Maure that does
not emerge directly from his texts. The author of the
Roman de Troie names himself in line 132 as Beneeit
de Sainte-More, and as Beneit in lines 2065, 5093, and
19,207. He praises Eleanor of Aquitaine in the Roman
de Troie and fl atters Henry II in the other text of which
he is believed to be the author, the Chronique des ducs
de Normandie. Here, the author is identifi ed simply as
Beneit from Touraine (albeit in summary passages that
may not be by the author himself), who, it is presumed,
took over for the aged Wace when the latter abandoned
his Roman de Rou, also a history of the dukes of Nor-
mandy. Benoît’s Chronique has 44,542 lines in octosyl-
labic rhymed couplets. It begins with the creation and
division of the world and ends with the death of Henry
I of England. The Latin chronicles of Dudo de Saint-
Quentin and Guillaume de Jumièges provided much of
the material. But Benoît also invented long discourses
for his historical characters and inserted countless prov-
erbs into his narrative. As in the Romances of Antiquity,
anachronism and medievalization are rampant. The
romance form of the Chronique suggests that it was part
of the repertoire of texts recited in a courtly milieu. The
Chronique, together with Wace’s Rou, is an excellent
example of the desire of a new dynasty (as the Angevins
with Henry II were in England) to celebrate their roots
and their history in vernacular texts that would be ac-
cessible not only to a learned clerical audience but also
to the aristocracy.
See also Eleanor of Aquitaine; Henry II; Wace
Further Reading
Benoît de Sainte-Maure. Chronique des ducs de Normandie, ed.
Carin Fahlin. 3 vols. Uppsala: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1951–67.
[A fourth volume of notes was published by Sven Sandqvist
in 1979 with the same publisher.]
——. Le roman de Troie, ed. Léopold Constans. 6 vols. Paris:
Didot, 1904–12.
Renate Blumeofeld-KosinskiBERCEO, GONZALO DE (1196?–1264?)
The fi rst Castilian poet to identify himself by name,
Gonzalo de Berceo is considered by many to be the mas-
ter of cuaderna vía. He was educated at the Benedictine
monastery in San Millán (he reminds us of this in Vida
de San Millán, is listed as a deacon in a document dating
from 1221, and registered as a secular priest in Berceo
and notary to Abbot Juan Sánchez in later manuscripts.
Dutton suggests that, given his profession and his liter-
ary background, he was probably trained at the Estudio
General at Palencia between 1221 and 1228.
Dutton and Kurlat de Weber have established the
following chronology for Berceo’s works:- Vida deSan Millán
- Vida de Santo Domingo de Silos
- Sacrifi cio de la Misa
- Duelo que fi zo la Virgen
- Himnos
- Loores de Nuestra Señora
- Signos del Juicio Final
- Milagros de Nuestra Señora
- Vida de Santa Oria
- Martirio de San Lorenzo
Additionally, two lost works (Historia de Valvanera,
Traslación de los Mártires de Arlanza) have been attrib-
uted to him. Berceo’s poetry may be divided into three
categories: hagiography (San Millán, Santo Domingo,
Santa Oria, San Lorenzo), Marian works (Loores,
Duelo, Milagros), and liturgical/doctrinal works (Sac-
rifi cio, Himnos, Signos)
Dutton argues convincingly that, in addition to the
two purposes traditionally ascribed to Berceo’s works
(instruction and entertainment), the hagiographic ma-
terials were designed to propagate the legends of saints
related to San Millán in order to bolster the prosperity
of the monastery, which had declined due to the rise of
new pilgrimage centers. This goal is clearly refl ected
in Berceo’s fi rst work, dedicated to the patron saint of
his monastery. San Millán derives from various sources
(the Vita Beati Emiliani of Braulio, the writings of the
monk Fernandus including the forged Votos de San
Millán) and it follows the tripartite structure of a saint’s
life (biography, miracles performed in life, posthumous
miracles). Berceo introduces the propagandistic element
at the outset, promising his public that it will be happy
to pay the tribute due to the monastery after hearing the
life of San Millán (st. 2 cd). The climax of the poem
BERCEO, GONZALO DE