Mirror of the Blessed Life of Christ, as well as transla-
tions by Earl Rivers (The Cordial, The Dicts and Saying
of the Philosophers, and Moral Proverbs) and by Caxton
himself, such as The Mirror of the Wo r l d, The Golden
Legend, The Book of the Knight of the Tower, and The
Art of Dying.
Caxton produced editions of the two most popular
historical works of his day, Trevisa’s translation of
Higden’s Polychronicon and the prose Brut (under the
title Chronicles of England), both of which he brought
up to date with material compiled by himself. He also
published a number of practical works: The Governal
of Health, a French-English vocabulary, statutes, de-
votional works, and a few Latin works on rhetoric that
may have been used as university textbooks.
Of considerable importance are the prologues and
epilogues to many of Caxton’s publications, in which he
comments on his choice and treatment of texts and on
matters of style, language, and the function of literature.
His own prose style is prolix and shows a predilection
for elevated foreign words. As an editor he sometimes
updated old-fashioned vocabulary, as in the Polychro-
nicon, or revised sections of the test, as in book 5 of
the Morte Darthur (though some scholars suggest the
revisions are by Malory himself).
Caxton’s translations and other publications are
representative of late-medieval practices and tastes;
his primary importance lies in his highly successful
introduction of the revolutionary technique of printing
to England.
See also Chaucer, Geoffrey; Gower, John;
Malory, Thomas
Further Reading
Primary Sources
Blake, N.F. Caxton’s Own Prose. London: Deutsch, 1973 [for a
full listing of other editions through the early 1980s].
Secondary Sources
New CBEL 1:667–74 Manual 3:771–807, 924–51
Blake, N.F. Caxton and His World. London: Deutsch, 1969.
Blake, N.F. “William Caxton.” In Middle English Prose: A
Critical Guide to Major Authors and Genres, ed. A.S.G.
Edwards. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1984,
pp. 389–412.
Blake, N.F. William Caxton: A Bibliographical Guide. New York:
Garland, 1985.
Painter, George D. William Caxton: A Quincentenary Biogra-
phy of England’s First Printer, London: Chatto & Windus,
1976.
Lister M. Matheson
CECCO ANGIOLIERI (c. 1260–1312)
Cecco is the most prolifi c and best-known of the me-
dieval comic poets. His father, Messer Angioliero, was
the banker of Pope Gregory IX from 1230 to 1233, a
member of the Frati Gaudenti, and a prominent Guelf
who participated in the political life of Siena. Cecco
belonged to the Arte del Cambio, i.e., the money chang-
ers’ or money brokers’ guild. He served as a soldier in
the Sienese militia in 1281, in a siege of the castle of
Turri in Maremma (during which he was fi ned for arbi-
trary absences while the fi ghting was going on); and in
1288, in a campaign against Arezzo (during which he
was fi ned for violating a curfew). It appears that Cecco
was plagued with fi nancial problems throughout his
lifetime. In 1302 he sold a vineyard. After his death, his
fi ve children were made to renounce their inheritance
and to pay additional monies to the commune in order
to satisfy his debts.
Cecco’s canzoniere are the largest body of work
by a thirteenth-century comic poet, consisting of 112
sonnets of undoubted authorship and fourteen sonnets
whose attribution is dubious. Questions of authenticity
of authorship preoccupied many scholars in the past,
especially because Cecco’s style had set a tone for many
subsequent comic poets. Until 1914, the entire corpus
of poetry by Meo dei Tolomei (c. 1260–c. 1310) was at-
tributed to Cecco, as were two sonnets by Nicola Muscia
(late thirteenth century). Many of Cecco’s poems are
found in MS Chigiano L.VIII.305 of the Vatican Library;
smaller groups are found in Escorialense e.III.23 and
Vaticano Barberino Latino 3953. Many other codices
contain one or two sonnets by Cecco, attesting to the
widespread popularity of his poetry during his lifetime.
However, the manuscript tradition also indicates that
his popularity did not extend much beyond his own
generation.
Cecco’s best-known and most frequently antholo-
gized sonnets— Tre cose solamente mi so’ in grado and
S’i ‘fosse foco, ardere’ il mondo—are in the Goliardic
tradition (the Goliards were wandering entertainers) of
odes to wine, women, and gambling; however, these
sonnets are not indicative of the bulk of his canzo-
niere. A signifi cant number of Cecco’s sonnets recount
a stormy relationship with a woman named Becchina,
characterized by some scholars as an “anti-Beatrice”
because her earthy language and behavior contrast
sharply with the type of idealized, an-gelicized woman
portrayed by Dante and other poets of the dolce stil
nuovo. Of particular interest are the sonnets in dialogue
between the poet-lover and Becchina, such as “Becchin’
amor!” “Che vuo, falso tradito?” and “Becchina mia!”
“Cecco, nol ti confesso.” In these compositions Cecco
raises the traditional sonetto a dialogo to a new level
of artistry. By having both fi gures speak in each line,
he accelerates the pace, thus heightening the theatrical
and comic effect. Most of the love sonnets that revolve
around Becchina have as their theme two moments in
the relationship: the poet’s initial frustration in gettingCECCO ANGIOLIERI