Epistolae selectae. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, 2(1–2).
Das Register Gregors VII, ed. Erich Caspar. Berlin: Weid-
mannsche Buchhandlung, 1920–1923.
Santifaller, Leo. Quellen u.Forsckungen zum Urkunden-und
Kanzleiwesen Papst Gregors VII. Studi e Testi 190. Vatican
City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1957.
Viae Gregorii VII, ed. I. M. Waiterich. In Pontifi cum romanorum
vitae, Vol. 1. Leipzig: Engelmann, 1862.
Studies
Benson, Robert L. The Bishop-Elect. Princeton, N.J., Princeton
University Press, 1968.
Blumenthal, Uta-Renate. “Gregor VII., Papst.” In Theologische
Realenzyklopaedie, 14, pp.145–152.
——. The Investiture Controversy. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1988. (Translation by the author of Der
Investiturstreit. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1982.)
Brooke, Zachary Nugent. The English Church and the Papacy.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931. (Reprints,
1952, 1968.)
Robinson, Ian S. “Pope Gregory VII and Episcopal Authority.”
Viator, 9, 1978, pp. 103–131.
——. The Papacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1990.
Uta-Renate Blumenthal
GROCHEIO, JOHANNES DE
(fl. ca. 1300)
French music theorist, whose treatise De musica is
our most important source of information on genre
distinctions between medieval French secular music
with vernacular texts and instrumental music. Grocheio
focuses on the musical practice of Paris, distinguishing
broadly between monophonic vernacular music (musica
vulgaris), measured, or polyphonic, music (musica men-
surata), and sacred music (musica ecclesiastica).
Grocheio divides musica vulgaris into cantus (vo-
cal music without refrain) and cantilena (popular
dance music with refrain). There are three categories
of cantus: gestualis, versualis, and coronatus. Cantus
gestualis refers to French medieval epic, the chanson
de geste. Grocheio provides more information than any
other source about the performance practice of the epic.
Cantus versicularis refers to French chansons organized
by syllable count and rhyme scheme, that is, the songs of
the troubadours and trouveres. Cantus coronatus refers
to particularly distinguished and elevated examples of
cantus versualis, the grands chants courtois.
Under the term cantilena, Grocheio provides us with
our best descriptions of popular dance forms, distin-
guishing rotundellus (rondeau), stantipes (estampie),
and ductia (carole), the latter two with both vocal and
instrumental forms. He provides a useful distinction
between dance forms in which all parts of the song
are dependent on the refrain (i.e., rondeau) from those
that have additional music not dependent on the refrain
(i.e., virelai and ballade). The instrumental ductia and
stantipes are articulated by alternating phrases called
puncta (each with fi rst and second endings) with the
refrain and are best played on the vielle.
For polyphonic music, Grocheio discusses the motet,
organum, conductus, and hocket, describing a successive
compositional process in which fi rst the tenor voice is
organized and then upper voices are built one at a time
over the tenor.
Grocheio peppers his treatise with fascinating com-
ments on the social functions of musical forms; for
instance, girls and youths in Normandy sing rondeaux
at festivals and banquets, stantipes turn the souls of the
rich from depraved thinking, motets are not suitable for
common people, who do not understand their subtleties,
but should be performed for the learned.Further Reading
Grocheio, Johannes de. Die Quellenhandschriften zum Musik-
traktat des Johannes de Grocheio, ed. Ernst Rohloff. Leipzig:
Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1972.
——. Johannes de Grocheo: Concerning Music (De musica),
trans. Albert Seay. 2nd ed. Colorado Springs: Colorado Col-
lege Music Press, 1973.
Page, Christopher. “Johannes de Grocheio on Secular Music:
A Corrected Text and a New Translation.” Plainsong and
Medieval Music 2 (1993): 17–41.
—— Discarding Images: Refl ections on Music and Culture in
Medieval France. Oxford: Clarendon, 1993, pp. 65–111.
Stevens, John. Words and Music in the Middle Ages: Song, Narra-
tive, Dance and Drama, 1050–1350. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1986, pp. 429–34.
Lawrence EarpGROSSETESTE, ROBERT
(ca. 1170–1253)
The great English scholar and bishop of Lincoln
(1235–53). Born in Suffolk of humble parentage, he
probably spent his early years as clerk in the episcopal
households at Lincoln and Hereford. While his educa-
tion in Oxford or Paris is a matter of conjecture, he was
master of theology in Oxford by the early 1220s and
was subsequently elected chancellor of the university.
In 1229–30 he was the fi rst Oxford lecturer to the newly
arrived Franciscans.
As a scholar Grosseteste was among the early-13th-
century theologians who contributed to the development
of the western scientifi c tradition. A scientifi c observer
of causes and predictor of consequences, he urged the
use of experiments in natural sciences. In his method-
ology he began with individual cases and worked to
formulate general rules. His study of optics, for example,
led him to ascribe to light a central role in the production
and constitution of the physical world.
Grosseteste’s works, written in Latin, French, andGREGORY VII, POPE