philosophical doctrines farthest removed from the truth
of Islam, such as the cynics for their rejection of any
truth, and atheists, for their repudiation of the existence
of a God, he progresses to discuss the polytheists, as
such Zoroastrians and Manichaeans, who recognize
God but not his uniqueness. Christianity is included
here because of the Trinitarian doctrine, which he
understands to be a form of polytheism. Judaism is,
in his view, the religion closest to Islam, except for its
adulteration of the divine revelation, which he proves
with reference to such Jewish sects as the Samaritans,
Sadducees, and Talmudites. His analysis of the various
religious doctrines is solidly based on textual references
that show his vast erudition.
Dealing with Islam, Ibn H.azm refers to its various
sects, from the Mu‘tazilites to the Kharigites, which
he sees to have in common their esoteric and allegori-
cal interpretations of the Revelation. To avoid this, the
true Muslim must follow the obvious (z.ah ̄ır) and the
literal meaning of the Qur’ ̄an. In this way he justifi es
the school of the literalist Thahimites that for a time
became popular in al-Andalus.
Points of great importance in Ibn H.azm’s theology
are harmony between faith and reason, divine predeter-
mination, and free will. Possibly the most important is
his effort to demonstrate the existence of God and the
temporality of the world, and the necessity of divine
revelation. Because of them, Ibn H.azm is considered a
precursor of Christian scholasticism.
Ibn H.azm exerted a great infl uence, and his doctrine
of literal interpretation became mainstream among the
Zah ̄ırites, and was continued by his followers, known as
Hazmites. Of his direct students many are known in their
own right. Well known also in the Orient, Ibn H.azm was
praised by Al-Ghaz ̄al ̄ı, and his infl uence extended to the
end of the sixteenth century, when it disappeared under
bloody persecution. In the Maghrib the favor shown to
his doctrines by the Almohad reformer Muhammad ibn
T ̄umart al-Mahd ̄ı helped to enhance the political infl u-
ence of his followers in North Africa and al-Andalus.
Among the most famous scholars that totally or partially
followed Ibn H.azm’s doctrines are the philosopher Aver-
roës and the mystic Ibn al-‘Arab ̄ı.
Further Reading
Asín Palacios, M. Abenházam de Córdoba y su historia crítica
de las ideas religiosas. 5 vols. Madrid, 1927–32.
García Gómez, E. El collar de la paloma, tratado sobre el amor
y los amantes, de Ibn Hazm de Córdoba. Madrid, 1952.
Ibn H.azm. A Book Containing the Ris ̄ala Known as The Dove’s
Neckring. Translated by A. R. Nykl. Paris, 1931.
——. The Ring of the Dove. Translated by A. J. Arberry. London,
1953.
Vicente Cantarino
IBN KHALDU N (1332-1406) ̄
Born 27 May 1332 and died 16 March 1406, he is
regarded as one of the greatest of all historians, but
especially of the Muslim world. He developed a theory,
method, and philosophy of history he called ‘umr ̄an
al-bashar ̄ı, or the social study of human civilization.
As a result, many credit Ibn Khald ̄u n with the inven-
tion of sociology. Born into a distinguished family of
Andalusí origins in Tunisia (they had emigrated from
Seville), Ibn Khald ̄u n received a thorough education
at home, in the mosque, and among the many Iberian
Muslim intellectuals who were refugees in North Africa.
In 1345, his parents died of the plague, and he found
employment at the court of the Hafsids. For almost
thirty years thereafter, he was deeply involved in the
turbulent politics of North Africa and Spain. At one
point, he was imprisoned for his political activities. In
1362 he went to Granada, where he was well received
by the vizier, Ibn al-Khatı ̄b. There he was enlisted to
serve on a diplomatic mission to Seville and the court
of Pedro I of Castile. Disillusioned by what he found in
Iberia, he returned to Tunisia, where he became h ̄ajib,
or chamberlain to the ruler. Soon embroiled again in
political intrigue, he decided on voluntary retirement to
the oasis of Baskarah in what today is Algeria. Circum-
stances, however, compelled him to return to politics,
even though he foresaw dangerous consequences. In
1375 he withdrew again from court life to a castle in
Oran, where during the course of the next fi ve years he
wrote Al-Muqaddimah, his greatest work. Drawn back
into politics in 1380, his experience proved nearly fatal
and, in 1382, he left Tunis never to return. He went to
Egypt, where he became a Ma likite q ̄ad. i, or judge, and
a prominent teacher of Islamic law at Al-Azhar Uni-
versity.
Ibn Khald ̄u n’s Muqaddimah serves as an introduction
to his Universal History. Kit ̄ab al-‘Ibar Kit ab al- ̄ ‘Ibar
is a valuable source for the history of North Africa and
Iberia, but the Muqaddimah is a brilliant exposition of
the methodological and cultural knowledge necessary
to produce a scientifi c understanding of the past. Ibn
Khald ̄u n was interested primarily in the reasons for the
rise and fall of human civilizations; he contended that
the basic causes of historical evolution are to be sought
in the economic and social structure of society. In his
work, he emphasizes environment, politics, economics,
and religion as the determining factors in the develop-
ment of societies. He surveys the sciences, refuting some
like alchemy and astrology, and refl ects on the manner
of acquiring and using them. History, like science,
involves more than a description of events, it calls for
speculation, discrimination, and an attempt to identify
the true causes and origins of existing things. The his-
torian needs to possess a clear knowledge of customs,IBN H.AZM