LEVI BEN GERSHOM (GERSONIDES)
(1288–1344)
Although he was born and lived his entire life in then
French Provence, Gersonides was the heir of the Spanish
Hebrew-Arabic medieval culture. Deeply infl uenced by
Averroës and Maimonides in philosophy and by Abra-
ham ibn Ezra in biblical exegesis, Gersonides not only
excelled in both these areas but also made important
contributions to astronomy and mathematics. Besides
inventing or improving upon several astronomical obser-
vational instruments, he compiled his own astronomical
tables, made many of his own observations, and engaged
in a critical analysis of several of Ptolemy’s hypotheses.
In mathematics he wrote a commentary on parts of
Euclid’s Elements and a treatise on trigonometry.
But it was in philosophy and biblical exegesis that
Gersonides was most infl uential. Continuing the tradi-
tion of the Córdoban philosopher Averroës, Gersonides
wrote many supercommentaries on Averroës’s com-
mentaries on Aristotle, in which he exhibited a critical
and independent approach to both his predecessors.
But it is The Wars of the Lord that is his most important
philosophical work. In this long treatise most of the top-
ics of medieval philosophy and science are discussed
in detail and with acuity. Some of his more novel or
radical conclusions were (1) the individual human
intellect is immortal (contrary to Averroës); (2) God
does not have knowledge of particular future contingent
events (contrary to Maimonides); (3) yet there is divine
providence over deserving individuals; (4) the universe
was divinely created out of an eternal shapeless body
(contrary to Averroës and Maimonides); (5) although it
has a beginning, the universe is indestructible (contrary
to Aristotle).
Whereas The Wars of the Lord elicited considerable
criticism from his coreligionists, Gersonides’ com-
mentaries upon the Bible were widely studied, even
among nonphilosophical Jews; his Commentary on Job
was particularly popular. This is remarkable because in
these commentaries Gersonides pulls no punches: the
ideas of The Wars of the Lord are repeated or assumed,
and there is no effort to mute their impact. He did not
obey Averroës’s and Maimonides’ rule that the teaching
of philosophy ought to be reserved for the philosophers
alone. In his Commentary on Job, for example, he has
each character represent a distinct philosophical posi-
tion on the question of divine providence. These various
positions are philosophically analyzed, and eventually
one emerges as the true solution to Job’s predicament.
Thus, the Book of Job is transformed into a Platonic
dialogue.
See also Averroës, Abu ‘L-Wal ̄ı d Muhammad B.
Ahmad B. Rushd; Gregory of Tours; Isidore of
Seville, Saint
Further Reading
Levi ben Gershom. The Wars of the Lord. 2 vols. Trans. Seymour
Feldman. Phildelphia, 1984–87. Touati, C. La Pensée phi-
losophique et théologique de Gersonide. Paris, 1974.
Seymour FeldmanLIMBOURG BROTHERS
(fl. late 14th–early 15th c.)
Three brothers (Paul, Jean, and Herman), nephews of
the painter Jean Malouel, came to Paris from Nijmegen
in the Low Countries as youths to serve as apprentices
under a goldsmith but had to leave because of the plague.
Imprisoned on their way home in 1399, they were ran-
somed by Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, for whom
they illuminated a Bible, now lost, between 1400 and- They may have been in the service of John, duke
of Berry, by 1405; for him, they produced their most
notable works: miniatures in the Très Belles Heures de
LIMBOURG BROTHERSLimbourg Brothers. January: The Feast of the Duke of Berry.
Illustrated manuscript page from Les Très Riches Heures de
Duc de Berry, 1416. Ms. 65; fol. 1V. Photo: R.G. Ojeda.
© Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, New York.