outmaneuvered the queen’s family, seized Edward V,
eliminated William, Lord Hastings, and rendered
the Yorkist establishment impotent, enabled him to
become king in his own right before the end of June
- The probable murder of his nephews in the Tower
of London was the inevitable culmination of this ruthless
pursuit of power.
Richard III may have been convinced that he was
indeed serving the interest of the nation; such, through
the ages, has been the politician’s justifi cation for ar-
bitrary action. The critical turning point in his fortunes
probably was the rebellion of the duke of Buckingham
(hitherto his closest and most spectacularly rewarded
supporter) in October 1483. Edward IV’s men, who for
the most part had accepted Richard’s protectorate and
even acquiesced in his usurpation, now deserted him
in droves in the south and west. Even more ominously
the exiled Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, emerged at
the same time as a potentially serious rival. The king
responded vigorously to these threats; the rebellion was
put down. In its aftermath, however, given the extent of
southern defection and the numbers who now fl ed the
country, he was forced more and more into dependence
on his own affinity. This meant, in particular, men
from the north. Their advancement in the royal
household and appointments to offi ce, not only in
southern and western counties but in the Midlands, is
amply documented.
Since he reigned for so short a time, it is diffi cult
either to judge Richard’s potential and qualities as
a ruler or to draw meaningful conclusions about his
government. The 15th-century antiquary John Rous,
later one of his harshest critics, recorded that he ruled
his subjects “full commendably, punishing offenders
of his laws, especially extortioners and oppressors of
his commons,” and won the “love of all his subjects
rich and poor.” His only parliament—perhaps with
his personal encouragement—passed measures dearly
benefi ting the people; and his establishment of the
Council of the North in July 1484 was both popular
and enduring.
Though he did make considerable efforts to widen
the basis of his support, with the threat of HenryTudor
looming ever larger, his reliance on his own affi nity,
largely from the north, remained paramount. When he
at last faced his rival on the battlefi eld of Bosworth on
22 August 1485, he was backed largely by the same
men who had brought him to power; many, though
by no means all, probably fought for him with vigor.
However, his own death (in the midst of the action and,
according to the Crowland continuator, striving to the
end “like a spirited and most courageous prince”) made
the accession of Henry VII inevitable.
Further Reading
Primary Sources
Armstrong, C.A.J., ed. and trans. Dominic Macnini: The Usurpa-
tion of Richard III. 2d ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1969
Pronay, Nicholas, and John Cox, eds. The Crowland Chronicle
Continuations, 1459–1486. London: Sutton, for the Richard
III and Yorkist History Trust, 1986.
Secondary Sources
Dockray, Keith. Richard III: A Reader in History. Gloucester:
Sutton, 1988 [commentary plus a selection of documents]
Hicks, Michael. Richard III: The Man behind the Myth. London:
Collins & Brown, 1991
Horrox, Rosemary. Richard III: A Study of Service. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1989 [scholarly treatment of
politics and government]
Markham, Clements R. Richard III: His Life and Character,
Reviewed in the Light of Recent Research. London: Smith,
Elder, 1906 [very sympathetic]
Pollard, A.J. Richard III and the Princes in the Tower. Stroud:
Sutton, 1991
Ross, Charles. Richard III. London: Eyre Methuen, 1981 [major
modern scholarly treatment]
Seward, Desmond. Richard III: England’s Black Legend. London:
Country Life, 1983 [the case against].
Keith R. DockrayRICHARD OF SAINT-VICTOR
(d. 1173)
A major writer on mysticism in the second half of the
12th century, Richard joined the regular canons of the
abbey of Saint-Victor at Paris sometime near the middle
of the century (certainly by the early 1150s but perhaps
before the death of Hugh of Saint-Victor in 1141). He
may have been born in Scotland. He served as subprior
and was elected prior in 1161. His writings on the
contemplative life were widely known and infl uenced
Bonaventure’s treatise Itinerarium mentis in Deum.
Richard followed the tradition of Victorine spiritual-
ity established by Hugh, but he concentrated more on the
stages of development in the mystical life and on what
today would be called the psychological aspects of that
development. Two of his major mystical writings are
symbolic interpretations of biblical persons, objects, and
narratives. De duodecim patriarchiis (also called Benja-
min minor) interprets the births and lives of the twelve
sons and one daughter of Jacob, recorded in Genesis, as
representing the stages of ascetic practice, mental disci-
pline, and spiritual guidance that lead to contemplative
ecstasy. De arca mystica (also called Benjamin major)
presents the Ark of the Covenant and the two cherubim
that stood on either side of it, described in Exodus, as
symbolic of the six kinds or levels of contemplation.
Books 4 and 5 of De arca give a subtle and infl uential
analysis of types of visionary and ecstatic experience.
Richard’s De IV gradibus violentae caritatis analyzesRICHARD III