Jerez, the last rebel stronghold in Andalusia, capitulated
in October. As a result of the rebellion, the king expelled
the Muslims from the recaptured towns and brought in
Christian settlers. The suppression of the revolt was
completed when Ibn al-Ahmar resumed payment of a.
yearly tribute to Castile in 1267. In that same year, Al-
fonso X, in return for Afonso III’s assistance in crushing
the revolt, yielded all rights in the Algarve and agreed
to a delimitation of the frontier with Portugal along the
Guadiana River to the Atlantic Ocean.
Although tranquility was restored, Alfonso X soon
encountered strong domestic opposition because of his
innovations in law and taxation. Intent on achieving
greater juridical uniformity, he drew upon Roman law in
preparing the Espéculo de las Leyes (known in its later
redaction as the Siete Partidas), intended as the law of
the royal court, and the Fuero Real, a code of municipal
law. The nobles accused him of denying them the right
to be judged by their peers in accordance with their
customs, and the townsmen were distressed by frequent
imposition of extraordinary taxes.
Under the leadership of the king’s brother Felipe,
the nobles confronted the king during the cortes (par-
liament) of Burgos in 1272. By confi rming traditional
customs, he modifi ed his plan for a uniform body of law,
but as compensation, the towns granted him a tax levy
every year for “the affair of the empire.” Despite his
efforts at accommodation many of the nobles went into
exile to Granada, but were fi nally persuaded to return to
royal service in 1274. With his realm at peace, Alfonso X
then journeyed to Beaucaire in southern France, where
in May 1275 he vainly tried to convince Pope Gregory
X to recognize him as Holy Roman Emperor. Thereafter
Alfonso X could not realistically expect to satisfy his
imperial ambitions.
During his absence, Abū Yū suf, the Marī nid emir
of Morocco, invaded Castile. The king’s son and heir,
Fernando de la Cerda, died suddenly en route to the
frontier in 1275, and Abū Yū suf routed the Castilian
forces. At that point, Alfonso X’s second son, Sancho,
reorganized the defense, cutting Marī nid communica-
tions with Morocco. A truce was arrived at, but Abū
Yū suf invaded again in 1277. Avoiding a battlefi eld
encounter, Alfonso X blockaded Algeciras in 1278, but
had to give it up early in 1279. In spite of the Moroccan
threat, Castile emerged from this crisis without a loss
of territory.
Meanwhile, the death of his oldest son in 1275 pre-
sented Alfonso X with a serious juridical problem. Fer-
nando de la Cerda’s oldest child, Alfonso, could claim
recognition as heir to the throne, but Sancho appealed to
the older custom that gave preference to a king’s surviv-
ing sons. After much debate, the king in the cortes of
Burgos in 1276 acknowledged Sancho. Fearing for the
safety of her two sons, Fernando de la Cerda’s widow,Blanche, accompanied by Queen Violante, took them
in 1278 to the court of Violante’s brother, Pedro III of
Aragón, who kept them in protective custody.
Philip III of France, the uncle of the two boys, pres-
sured Alfonso X to partition his realm and to establish
a vassal kingdom for Alfonso de la Cerda. During the
cortes of Seville in 1281, while the people complained
that they were being impoverished by the heavy taxes,
Sancho, angered by the possibility of losing any por-
tion of the kingdom broke with his father. A public
assembly held at Valladolid in April 1282 transferred
royal power to Sancho, leaving Alfonso X only the royal
title. Abandoned by his family and many of his subjects,
the king turned to Abū Yū suf, the Marī nid emir, who
invaded Castile again. As many of Sancho’s supporters
renewed their allegiance to the king, a vain attempt at
reconciliation was made, but in his last will Alfonso X
disinherited his son. The king died at Seville on 4 April
1284 and was buried in the cathedral.
Despite the unhappy end to his reign Alfonso X was
one of the greatest medieval kings of Castile, and his
impact on the development of Spanish law and institu-
tions was lasting.Further Reading
Ballesteros, A. Alfonso X. Barcelona and Madrid, 1963; reprt.
Barcelona, 1984.
O’Callaghan, J. F. “Image and Reality: The King Creates his
Kingdom.” In Emperor of Culture. Alfonso X the Learned
of Castile and his Thirteenth-Century Renaissance. Ed. R. I.
Burns. Philadelphia, 1990. 14–32.
Joseph F. O’CallaghanALFRED THE GREAT
(849–899; r. 871–99)
History
Youngest son of Æthelwulf, king of Wessex, Alfred was
born at Wantage, Berkshire, in 849. This is recorded
in Asser’s Life of King Alfred, written during Alfred’s
lifetime and dedicated to him. In 853 Æthelwulf sent
Alfred to Rome, where he received a special investi-
ture from Pope Leo IV (844–55). Though this ritual is
depicted by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Asser as
an anointing to kingship, in 853 Alfred had three elder
brothers living. Asser also claims to have from Alfred
the story of how his mother, Osburh, promised a book
of “Saxon songs” to whichever son could learn it fi rst;
the winner was Alfred.
When Æthelwulf married the Carolingian princess
Judith in 856, Alfred’s eldest brother, Æthelbald, re-
volted and assumed rule of Wessex, while Æthelwulf
retained Kent, Surrey, and Sussex until his own death in
858, when Æthelbald succeeded to the whole kingdom.ALFONSO X, EL SABIO, KING OF CASTILE AND LEÓN