Notes to Pages 48–53 211
- Habecker, “Ruling the East,” 376–377.
- Perhaps it is unclear whether or not von Ungern- Sternberg was supported by the
Japa nese. Bisher states that he was; see Bisher, W h i te Te r r o r, 279.
- Hara, “Korean Movement,” 18–19. NRA is an acronym for People’s Revolutionary
Army (of the FER). Regarding the events, see J. J. Stephan, Rus sian Far East, 152–155.
- Far Eastern Republic, Japa nese Intervention, 19.
- A similar example is the following that took place in 1914: “Semyonov walked
with three Buryat soldiers to the Kremlin, where they encountered a trio of Eu ro pean Rus-
sians who refused to believe that they were not Japa nese. Their fellow citizens in Moscow
had never heard of Buryats, and had no idea that they were part of the Tsar’s domain.”; see
Bisher, W h i te Te r r o r, 26, 110.
- Hirsch argued that “[Soviet] nationality was not biological or racial.” See Fran-
cine Hirsch, “Race without the Practice of Racial Politics,” Slavic Review 61, no. 1 (Spring
20 02): 39.
- Agnew and McDermott, The Comintern, xix.
- Gellately, Lenin, Stalin and Hitler, 88–90, and Agnew and McDermott, Comin-
tern, 143.
- Eudin and. North, Soviet Rus sia and the East, 1920–1927, 39.
- Elleman, Diplomacy and Deception, 195, 198–200.
- Pak was also known as Pak Chin Sun and Pak Din Sun. Pak, in the debate be-
tween M. N. Roy and Lenin, took the neutral stance of “no distinction” promulgated by the
Maring; see Eudin and North, Soviet Rus sia and the East, 40–42.
- Ibid., 43–44.
- Bennigsen and Lemercier- Quelquejay, Islam in the Soviet Union, 155–161.
- As an example, the repression of Sultan Galiev and Sultangalievism among his
followers and other Tatar intellectuals and cadres began after Galiev’s arrest in May 1923.
In 1920, Ahmed Zeki Validov, the leader of Bashkiria/BashkirRevCom, deci ded that Bol-
shevik “autonomy” did not offer real autonomy led by Bashkir communists. He fled to
Turkestan (Central Asia) in June 1920 and joined the Basmachis. Both Galiev and Validov
had dreamed of the creation of Pan- Turkic federations and nation- states. See Bennigsen
and Lermercier- Quelquejay, Islam in the Soviet Union, 106, 157–161, and Zenkovsky, Pan-
Turkism and Islam in Rus sia, 204–207.
CHAPTER 4 : KOREAN KORENIZATSIIA AND ITS SOCIALIST CONSTRUCTION
Epigraph. Krasnoe znamia, February 1, 1929, no. 25 (2540).
- Officially, this policy line was to root out all Great Rus sian chauvinism; in prac-
tice, it still flourished. “Vytravim gnezdo shovinizma,” Krasnoe znamia, April 2, 1930, no.
- 3, stated that there were almost no cases or pre ce dents where acts of chauvinism
(racism included) were prosecuted in the USSR up to 1930.
- By “Soviet modernist,” I refer to the state’s goal of educating and constructing
national elites as part of state policy. Soviet Korean cadres and institutions such as
INKORPORE also functioned to mediate, interpret, and disseminate the vari ous messages
and discourses between the “national” masses and Moscow. These national elites formed a
parallel state structure and strata.
- Access to the channels of supply gave one power in the Soviet economy (called
blat); see Ledeneva, Rus sia’s Economy of Favours, 4, 28, 34, 35. In korenizatsiia, access to
repre s en ta tion in media, arts, institutions, and officials was a “utopian good.”
