240 Notes to Pages 174–179- See ibid., 829, which avows: “Soviet xenophobia was ideological, not ethnic. It
was spurred by an ideological hatred and suspicion of foreign cap i tal ist governments, not
the national hatred of non- Russians.” - Ibid., 829, 860.
- Arsenev’s “Doklad” also argued against “Soviet internationalism” being under-
taken in the RFE; see Arsenev, “Doklad,” 114. - Regarding the Chinese deportations during the First World War, see Lohr,
“Population Policy,” 176–177, 181nn41–42. - Martin’s theory claims other wise, stating “The new Soviet primordialism of the
1930s allowed the emergence of a previously absent category, the enemy nation.” See Mar-
tin, “Modernization or Neo- traditionalism,” 357. - A. Shadt, “Pravoi status Rossiiskikh Nemtsev v SSSR (1940–1950- e),” in Nemtsy v
SSSR v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny: Poslevoennoe desiatletie, 1941–1955 gg., ed. A.
German (Moscow: Gotika, 2001), 287–296, and USSR (state corporate author), Constitution
(Fundamental Law) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 1936 (Moscow: Co- Operative
Publishing Society of Foreign Workers, 1936). - For the latter point (regarding Soviet imperialism), see Martin, Affirmative Ac-
tion Empire, 20. - A fter all, all peoples have an ethnic label or nomenklatura. “Rus sian” is the eth-
nic term for a Eu ro pean or Slavic people. For that reason, the use of “ethnic cleansing” may
not be appropriate in this par tic u lar case. - Despite setting up my work and theories in juxtaposition to those of Terry
Martin, I must acknowledge a huge intellectual debt to his “Origins” article and The Affir-
mative Action Empire. The latter’s range of study was enormous; generally, it covered all of
the major Soviet nationalities and their policies during indigenization. - This refers especially to the post- NEP period. The survival of Soviet factories
and agricultural collectives was more dependent on the po liti cal networks and patronage of
their sponsors than on the quality of the goods produced. See Verdery, What Was Socialism
and What Comes Next? 19–35. - Shlapentokh, A Normal Totalitarian Society, 10 7.
- For the view that a primordial turn in nationalities polices occurred in the
1930s, see Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, 443, and Weitz, A Century of Genocide, 78–79. - Fikes and Lemon affirmed that “ [the] Soviets did infer biological and inherited
essences, drawing both upon external signs and nonvisible signs such as blood. Addition-
ally, terms such as nationality were deployed to do the work of racial categories (see also
Balibar 1989).” See Kesha Fikes and Alaina Lemon, “African Presence in Former Soviet
Spaces,” Annual Review of Anthropology 31 (2002): 515. - Stalin, Marxism, 8.
- Frederickson, Racism, 135, 141.
- See Carrère d’Encausse, The Great Challenge, 38.
- Frederickson, Racism, 153–154, and Malik, Meaning of Race, 148.
- Gellately, Lenin, Stalin and Hitler, 548–550.
- Ibid., 546.
- This constitution was also called by many in the USSR the “Stalin Constitu-
tion.” For Stalin’s role as the constitution’s principal overseer, see Solomon, Soviet Criminal
Justice, 173. - USSR (state corporate author), Constitution (Fundamental Law) of the Union of
the Soviet Socialist Republics (Moscow: Cooperative Publishing of the USSR, 1936), 48.