36 Chapter 3led a partisan regiment called Comrades that consisted of 680 Korean par-
tisans. Khan Chan Gol created his own partisan group with just 36 soldiers in
April 1919. Because of Khan’s abilities as an active, enterprising, and charis-
matic leader, this regiment grew to around 300 by 1921.^18 Both of the afore-
mentioned Korean leaders continued to play significant roles among the
Koreans in the RFE, as we shall see in the chapters that follow. There was
likely another two- to- three thousand Koreans who fought in unofficial parti-
san units. Many of these partisans had battled the Japa nese Army in Korea
and Manchuria and were seeking refuge in the RFE. By late 1919, the Civil
War was turning into a rout of the Whites. Kolchak (the Whites’ general)
withdrew from Omsk in November 1919 with his forces in tatters. The Allies
began to prepare for the withdrawal of their vari ous legions from Rus sia. By
April 1, 1920, all American forces (AEF) had left. The Czech Legion contin-
ued to depart from Vladivostok to Eu rope from January to September 1920.^19
In 1920, the Soviet Union was at war with Poland and the Whites
under General Wrangel in the Crimea. The Soviets deci ded to postpone the
Sovietization of the RFE in order to conserve their military forces for the
war effort in Western Rus sia. Therefore, the Soviet government pursued a
buffer strategy in the name of an in de pen dent region in the Rus sian Far East
(including the Transbaikal region). This region was renamed the Far Eastern
Republic and was lead by moderate socialists, in de pen dents, and some for-
mer zemstvo leaders.^20 After the creation of the FER, the Japa nese were
now the sole Allies to fund, arm, and conduct joint operations with White
forces from Lake Baikal to Vladivostok. Japan would not relinquish her dream
of ruling Siberia and the RFE directly or by proxy. Thus, Japa nese forces
increased from 73,000 to over 100,000 after the other Allies had departed.^21
Immediately after the Americans left Vladivostok (April 1, 1920), the
Japa nese launched an intimidation campaign against Korean nationalists
on April 4–5. They raided Sinhanchon (the Korean district of Vladivostok),
killing three hundred Koreans and beating just as many. They also burned
the Korean school.^22 However, Japa nese forces typically meted out such
brutality to all residents and nationalities under their rule. The following
edict from Japa nese forces to a village elder of the Rus sian village Voznesensk
reads as follows: “I order you, elder [starshina], to appear tomorrow the 24 of
December 1919 at 5:30 in the morning at my office at the Japa nese staff
headquarters in the village of Nikolaevsk: and if you, elder, do not appear
with your assistant at the appointed time, then I shall have to go with my de-
tachment and destroy all of your village and shoot the people both old and
young along with your assistant.”^23
In some regions of the RFE, the Japa nese military was recognized as
the de facto rulers. One example of this occurred in the village of Zabaikal-