that included Indian percussionist Trilok Gurtu,
who played with Oregon, a world music fusion group
that started in the 1970’s. A new interest in Euro-
pean folk traditions, including Celtic and klezmer
music among others, also emerged in the 1980’s.
The Klezmer Conservatory Band was established in
the early 1980’s, and McLaughlin supplemented his
Indian music and jazz activities by collaborating with
flamenco guitarist Paco De Lucía.
Global Influences on WOMAD and Minimalism One
of the most noticeable world music phenomena
that emerged during the 1980’s was the World of
Music, Arts and Dance festival (WOMAD), initially
sponsored by Peter Gabriel, a famous rock musi-
cian whose political identification with the struggle
against racial segregation in South Africa had in-
spired him to explore that country’s music. The first
festival—which included Gabriel, drummers from
Burundi, and other musicians—was held in 1982
and attracted more than fifteen thousand people.
The festival expanded in subsequent years, being
held in many different countries, as often as ten
times per year, and has featured thousands of musi-
cians. In 1986, world music got another important
boost when American musician Paul Simon recorded
Graceland, which included the South African choral
group Ladysmith Black Mambazo.
Although more publicity was generated by the ac-
tivities of popular musicians, intercultural influence
was expanding in elite circles as well. A movement
known as minimalism, which also represented a
break with the extreme complexity of many twenti-
eth century compositions, incorporated aesthetic
concepts as well as musical elements from Asian, Af-
rican, and other sources. Philip Glass, who had sup-
plemented his graduate work in composition with
lessons from Indian sitar virtuoso Ravi Shankar;
Terry Riley, who was also influenced by Indian mu-
sic; and Steve Reich, who was interested in rhythms
from Indonesia and Africa, were just a few of the
composers who successfully incorporated global ele-
ments.
Impact Criticisms have been raised that the world
music trend aspires to breadth but sacrifices depth.
Even the breadth has been called into question, be-
cause the less easily understood, less danceable gen-
res have been underrepresented. The technological
ability to “sample” or electronically capture frag-
ments of sound and then use them in other contexts
is also problematic. There is concern that globaliza-
tion might obscure or even destroy some unique as-
pects of musical traditions and the identities they re-
flect. On the other hand, many musicians benefited
artistically from the stimulating and challenging col-
laborations and benefited financially from the in-
creased exposure resulting from the explosion of in-
terest in world music during the 1980’s. Most of the
musicians involved in these activities have continued
them into the twenty-first century, and their audi-
ences are still listening.
Further Reading
Feld, Steven. “A Sweet Lullaby for World Music.”
Public Culture12, no. 1 (Winter, 2000): 145-171.
This critical essay provides an overview of the his-
tory of the term “world music,” with attention to
the 1980’s, and explores the moral, technical,
and legal implications of musical appropriation.
Fletcher, Peter.World Musics in Context: A Comprehen-
sive Survey of the World’s Major Musical Cultures.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. A com-
prehensive study that includes a historical over-
view, focusing on connections among the world’s
peoples.
Nidel, Richard.World Music: The Basics.New York:
Routledge, 2004. This accessible book is primarily
descriptive of the most popular genres, but still
fairly broad, with 130 countries represented.
Witzleben, Lawrence. “Whose Ethnomusicology?
Western Ethnomusicology and the Study of Asian
Music.”Ethnomusicology41, no. 2 (1997): 220-242.
Explores fundamental issues and possibilities in
the cross-cultural academic study of the musics of
the world.
John MyersSee also Classical music; Glass, Philip; Jazz; Music;
Native Americans; Pop music.World Wrestling Federation
Identification Professional sports entertainment
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The forerunner of the World Wrestling Entertainment em-
pire, the World Wrestling Federation in the 1980’s changed
the face of professional wrestling. The company trans-
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with loose alliances into a cohesive national organizationThe Eighties in America World Wrestling Federation 1065