small independent contractors to large corporations.
CAD and CAM reduced errors in transcription, doc-
umentation, design, analysis, and cost prediction. It
became easier for engineers to see how components
and subsystems of a product would interact before
the product was built, and teamwork increased within
and among project groups, thereby increasing the
efficiency of each new process from design to deliv-
ery. Developments in CAD and CAM software directly
resulted in the practical use of robots, rapid proto-
typing (the automatic creation of a model based on a
CAD design), and virtual reality in manufacturing.
Further Reading
Bowman, Daniel.The CAD/CAM Primer. Indianapo-
lis: Howard W. Sams, 1984. A dynamic instruc-
tional publication on the basics of CAD and CAM
for the entrepreneurial engineer; outlines the ef-
fectiveness of the technology along with the prob-
lems of its implementation.
Groover, Mikell, and Emory Zimmers.CAD/CAM:
Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing. Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1984. Thorough
and lucid review of the applications of CAD and
CAM, including numerical-control programming,
quality control, graphics software and databases,
robot technology, and inventory management.
Machover, Carl.The CAD/CAM Handbook. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1996. Extensive history of the C4
concept focused on the applications of CAD,
CAM, CAE, and CIM.
Troy Place
See also Apple Computer; Business and the econ-
omy in Canada; Business and the economy in the
United States; Computers; Inventions; Microsoft;
Robots; Science and technology; Virtual reality.
Caffeine
Definition Popular stimulant found in beverages
such as coffee, tea, soft drinks, and cocoa
The United States is one of the world’s major consumers of
caffeine. In the 1980’s, the psychoactive properties of the
drug were both hailed and criticized by various institutions.
Beverage companies also actively promoted and marketed
caffeine, causing a surge in its popularity by the end of the
decade.
Colonial European Americans primarily drank tea,
until the British placed a tax on it prior to the Ameri-
can Revolution. Coffee then became the drink of
choice, because the product could be imported
from Caribbean and Central American plantations
by the early nineteenth century, whereas tea came
from Asia and other lands whose trade was domi-
nated by Great Britain. The advantages of consum-
ing caffeine include increased energy, greater physi-
cal endurance, improved memory, and the ability to
complete tasks more quickly. Caffeine can also be
used as an analgesic in combination with aspirin or
other drugs to help control pain. In the 1960’s, the
quest for self-awareness and the psychoactive quali-
ties of caffeine caused a growth in communal coffee-
houses in major U.S. cities.
The boom in consumption slowed, however, and
the coffee industry experienced a slump in sales by
the beginning of the 1980’s. Around the same time,
the medical community began to publish research
data about the adverse effects of overconsuming caf-
feine, usually defined as ingesting more than 650 to
800 milligrams per day. Empirical research showed
that global consumption of soft drinks increased
by 23 percent from 1960 to 1982, possibly indicat-
ing physical dependence. Habitual caffeine drink-
ers can experience minor withdrawal symptoms
without caffeine, including headaches and sleepless-
ness. Some other studies concluded that chronic
consumption of caffeine could be associated with ir-
regular heartbeats, higher levels of cholesterol, and
bladder cancer in males. In 1980, the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) issued a warning, call-
ing for pregnant women to restrict or eliminate cof-
fee consumption. Before the 1984 Olympics, an in-
ternational committee placed caffeine on the list of
banned substances. The beverage industry soon be-
gan an aggressive marketing campaign to offset the
harmful effects portrayed in research and in the me-
dia. As with wine, later studies provided evidence
that moderate consumption of caffeinated bever-
ages could be beneficial to health, while confirming
the detrimental effects of overuse.Impact Beginning in 1987, Starbucks became a
popular national coffeehouse chain, driving an
American cultural obsession. Indeed, the American
demand for coffee became so great that major
chains such as Starbucks, Coffee Bean and Tea Leaf,
Seattle’s Best Coffee, and Caribou Coffee were able170 Caffeine The Eighties in America