The Eighties in America - Salem Press (2009)

increasing limitations. During the first decade of the
twenty-first century, nevertheless, affirmative action
programs continued to be a part of American cul-
ture, and it appeared that controversies about their
fairness would continue for many decades into the
future.

Further Reading
Anderson, Terry H.The Pursuit of Fairness: A Histor y
of Affirmative Action. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2004. An excellent and balanced historical
account from the beginning of racial and gender
preferences in the 1970’s until the early twenty-
first century.
Eastman, Terry.Ending Affirmative Action: The Case for
Colorblind Justice. New York: Perseus, 1997. In ad-
dition to a historical summary, Eastman argues
the case for ending all preferences based on race
or gender.
Kranz, Rachel.Affirmative Action. New York: Facts on
File, 2002. This introductory research guide for
students summarizes the political debate and in-
cludes a historical overview, as well as a summary
of important legal cases.
Leiter, Samuel, and William M. Leiter.Affirmative Ac-
tion in Antidiscrimination Law and Policy: An Over-
view and Synthesis. Albany: State University of New
York Press, 2002. A comprehensive study of vari-
ous programs, including their origin, growth, im-
pact, and future prospects.
Spann, Girardeau.Law of Affirmative Action: Twenty-
Five Years of Supreme Court Decisions on Race and
Remedies. New York: New York University Press,

2000. A comprehensive chronicle of the Court’s
      rulings from the 1970’s until the end of the twen-
      tieth century.
      Weiss, Robert.We Want Jobs: A Histor y of Affirmative
      Action. New York: Routledge, 1997. An account of
      the change in the civil rights movement from a
      demand for equal opportunity to an emphasis on
      statistical goals and timetables, resulting in a white
      backlash.
      Thomas Tandy Lewis

See also African Americans; Latinos; Native Amer-
icans; O’Connor, Sandra Day; Racial discrimination;
Reagan Revolution; Rehnquist, William H.; Supreme
Court decisions.

Africa and the United States

Definition The state of affairs between the United

States and the countries of Africa

In the 1980’s, the more humane, liberal policies of the

Carter administration gave way to the more aggressive, con-

servative ones of the Reagan years. George H. W. Bush

ended the decade with little or no change to Ronald Rea-

gan’s policies, leaving much of Africa confused about the

commitment of the United States to the continent’s plights

and concerns.

Relations between Africa and the United States were

contentious as President Ronald Reagan swept his

way into the White House with a strong social con-

servative program. Fresh in the memory of most Af-

ricans was the smoldering remains of a highly antici-

patory but short-lived era of hope for greater U.S.

assistance from the liberal administration of Presi-

dent Jimmy Carter.

The Reagan Administration In the face of a world

of increasing threats to Western democracy, a surge

in conservatism in the United States with roots in

the Richard M. Nixon administration in the 1970’s

found its full expression in the Reagan administra-

tion of the 1980’s. As the decade began, Americans

not only were troubled by the ever-present danger of

nuclear annihilation by the Soviet Union but also be-

came aggravated by the rise of fundamentalism in

the Middle East. The fundamentalist revolution that

brought the Ayatollah Khomeini regime to power in

Iran was in particular quite threatening and humili-

ating to the American psyche, as the revolutionaries

seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran and held Ameri-

can diplomats as hostages for 444 days. President

Carter’s fumbled efforts to free the hostages had

added to the state of despair. It came as no surprise

that Reagan, with his message of restoring America’s

pride through the infusion of patriotism and strong

fiscal policies, resonated with the majority of Ameri-

cans’ public longing for the rekindling of the coun-

try’s lost sense of greatness.

The Nixon administration had paved the way to

tougher foreign policies by emphasizing realpolitik

and détente as foreign policies, while at the domes-

tic level it maintained wage and price controls. The

Reagan administration took these policies to new

heights by emphasizing stronger measures in the

Cold War containment policies of an earlier era.

The Eighties in America Africa and the United States
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