social, political, cultural, and economic life of the
nation. Multiculturalists endorsed these policies as
embracing a politics of recognition, highlighting
racial, linguistic, and other differences to ensure
equality for all Canadians.
Multicultural Citizenship Policymakers were partic-
ularly concerned to promote multiculturalism, be-
cause Canadian society and its institutions were his-
torically inexperienced in dealing equitably with
ethnic groups, whether visible minority groups or
white ethnic minorities. Initially, as both European
and non-European migration brought people to
Canada that did not conform to the Anglo-Saxon
culture and physical appearance, certain groups
experienced systemic discrimination that hindered
their economic, social, and political progress. Thus,
having implemented an immigration policy encour-
aging diversity, policymakers acknowledged a need
to accommodate that diversity. Equally important,
the province of Quebec contained a majority of
French Canadians who sought recognition of the
distinct nature of their society within Canada. Que-
bec had refused to ratify the new constitution in
1982, and incorporating the majority French prov-
ince fully within the majority English nation became
a high priority in the 1980’s.
Canada’s government sought to give both the pub-
lic and private sectors a model for policies designed to
produce multicultural equality. Scholars suggested
that equality was an important context within which
to advocate for the recognition of difference. Such
recognition alone could be detrimental to a vital na-
tional culture, but when it was understood to be in the
service of equality it took on a constructive role,
strengthening Canadian identity and society.
Impact Canada’s multicultural policies were not
universally embraced. Indeed, they polarized Cana-
dian politics, as a debate raged over the proper rela-
tionships among the nation, the provinces, and their
minority populations. Opponents of official multi-
culturalism argued that nations such as France, the
United States, and the United Kingdom were able to
achieve equality of treatment without officially sanc-
tioning cultural diversity. They argued that Cana-
dian institutions such as the courts, the police, and
the health care system were already equipped to deal
equitably with Canada’s populace without institut-
ing official multicultural policies. Furthermore, they
claimed that the Canadian system faced a grave dan-
ger if it followed ideals of multicultural citizenship,
arguing that multiculturalism was divisive rather
than unifying. Many suggested that equality could
not be guaranteed merely by recognizing culture as
a point of reference.
Proponents, meanwhile, supported the policy by
referring to Canada’s history, recalling a time when
race and language were used to hinder equality of
progress within society. They feared that such op-
pression could continue without an official recogni-
tion of the value of difference to Canada’s well-being
as a nation.
Further Reading
Abu-Laban, Yasmeen, and Daiva Stasiulis. “Con-
structing ‘Ethnic Canadians’: The Implications
for Public Policy and Inclusive Citizenship.”Ca-
nadian Public Policy26, no. 4 (December, 2000):
477-487.
Bissoondath, Neil.Selling Illusions: The Cult of Multi-
culturalism in Canada.Toronto: Penguin Books,
1994.
Mackey, Eva.The House of Difference: Cultural Politics
and National Identity in Canada.Toronto: Univer-
sity of Toronto, 2002.
McRoberts, Kenneth. “Quebec: Province, Nation, or
‘Distinct Society?’” InCanadian Politics in the
Twenty-first Centur y, edited by M. Whittington and
G. Williams. Scarborough, Ont.: Nelson Thomson
Learning, 2000.
Esmorie J. MillerSee also Aboriginal rights in Canada; Canada Act
of 1982; Canada and the British Commonwealth; Ca-
nadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms; Education
in Canada; Immigration to Canada; Multicultural-
ism in education; Trudeau, Pierre.Miracle on Ice
The Event The U.S. ice hockey team defeats the
Soviet team in the 1980 Olympics
Date February 22, 1980
Place Lake Placid, New York
The U.S. ice hockey team was a lightly regarded squad, con-
sisting largely of current and former college players, yet its
stellar play against more experienced teams, highlighted by its
stunning upset of the highly favored team from the Soviet
Union, led to one of Olympic hockey’s most unlikely victories.The Eighties in America Miracle on Ice 657