and summaries of the research leading to the
award are included.
Woodward, Robert B., and Roald Hoffmann.The
Conservation of Orbital Symmetr y. Weinheim, Ger-
many: Verlag Chemie, 1971. Symmetry principles
are developed for predicting the outcome of
chemical reactions. This book was a milestone in
theoretical organic chemistry.
John R. Phillips
See also Asian Americans; Astronomy; Cancer re-
search; DNA fingerprinting; Genetics research; Po-
etry; Science and technology.
North, Oliver
Identification U.S. Marine assigned to the
National Security Council
Born October 7, 1943; San Antonio, Texas
North was the key figure in the Iran-Contra affair. His boy-
ish good looks and earnest demeanor propelled him to media
stardom and earned him the admiration of many Ameri-
cans. His covert activities led many to question the compe-
tency of the Reagan presidency.
In 1986, the American public was introduced to
Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, a handsome, blue-
eyed Marine with a grand devo-
tion to duty. North, a decorated
Vietnam veteran, had been as-
signed to the National Security
Council in 1981. He soon became
the point man in a Ronald Reagan
administration scheme to deceive
Congress, ignore the law, arm
dangerous men, and aid ques-
tionable allies.
In 1981, President Reagan re-
vived America’s commitment to
fight communism in Latin Amer-
ica. Disturbed by the Marxist San-
dinista leadership in Nicaragua,
he ordered Director of Central In-
telligence William J. Casey to or-
ganize anti-Sandinista guerrillas.
These rebels—many of whom had
been members of the repressive
National Guard of overthrown dic-
tator Anastasio Somoza Debayle—
were known as the Contras and referred to by Reagan
as “freedom fighters.” The United States supplied the
rebels with armaments and other forms of military as-
sistance.
In 1982, Massachusetts senator Edward Boland
introduced a resolution to limit aid to the Contras.
The Boland Amendment capped the Contra fund at
$24 million and forbade the use of American funds
to topple the Nicaraguan government. Two years
later, a second amendment (Boland II) forbade any
economic support for the Contras, or any other mili-
tary or paramilitary group or individual in Nicara-
gua. The Reagan administration, however, contin-
ued its policy, using extralegal means. Oliver North
was directed to aid the Contras without congressio-
nal help or knowledge.
Armed with the approval of National Security Ad-
viser Robert McFarlane and a “can-do” spirit, North
took up the cause with zeal. He organized private
fund-raising campaigns and persuaded other na-
tions to donate money to the Contras. After the
United States began selling arms to Iran for diplo-
matic favors, North suggested that any extra profits
be diverted to the Contras. The Iran-Contra affair
was born.
When the affair was uncovered, it caused a major
scandal. President Reagan denied any knowledge of
North’s activities. In 1986, Reagan fired North. A714 North, Oliver The Eighties in America
Oliver North testifies before the joint House-Senate investigation of the Iran-Contra affair
on July 7, 1987.(AP/Wide World Photos)