lic, Anglican, and United Churches are hierarchical,
ritualistic, and dedicated to continuity through tra-
dition.
Most Canadians were not regular churchgoers in
the 1980’s, however, and about 12 percent of the
population during the decade was classified as non-
religious, the largest share on the west coast. Quebec
experienced the most obvious secularization after
the Quiet Revolution of the 1960’s, yet religious
identity remained strong in the province with the
Triune of French ethnicity, French language, and
Catholic religion. Indigenous peoples continued to
practice animistic spiritual traditions, Christianity,
or a blending of animistic and Christian.
Impact Unlike U.S. groups, Canadian faith groups
after World War II drifted to the left in support of the
country’s social welfare policies, including guaran-
teed universal health care. The United Church, cre-
ated from a merger in 1925 of Methodists, Congre-
gationalists, Brethren, and most Presbyterians,
represents an unusually successful ecumenical and
cooperative effort among Christians, and this group
has been particularly effective in the promotion of
civil rights for groups such as indigenous peoples
and prison populations. The Canadian Council of
Churches, a Christian ecumenical umbrella organi-
zation, offers leadership and support for its member
denominations.
Further Reading
Hewitt, W. E., ed.The Sociology of Religion: A Canadian
Focus.Toronto: Butterworths, 1993. Essays on di-
verse topics such as new religious movements,
nonbelief, religion and multiculturalism, and the
influence of religion on national identity.
Menendez, Albert J.Church and State in Canada.
Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1996. Ad-
dresses the impact of religion on politics, law, ed-
ucation, and national identity, drawing compari-
sons to the United States.
“Religion in Canada.”Journal of Canadian Studies 22
(Winter, 1987-1988). A summary of religious pat-
terns supported by official data.
Ann M. Legreid
See also Immigration to Canada; Minorities in
Canada; Religion and spirituality in the United
States; Televangelism.
Religion and spirituality in the
United States
Definition Organized and nonorganized
expressions of spiritual belief and practice
among Americans
During the 1980’s, debates on several questions that had
been a part of American religious histor y for decades became
increasingly heated in religious denominations, in politics,
and even in the realm of popular culture. The decade was
marked by calls for religious pluralism and tolerance for
underrepresented groups—especially in ordained minis-
tr y—but also by a gradual and powerful shift to the right in
terms of social and cultural activism and the promotion of a
Judeo-Christian worldview. These debates were featured not
only in internal dialogues among religious and spiritual
leaders but also in political debates (including all three pres-
idential elections of the 1980’s) and popular culture.
The early 1980’s saw the growth and development of
opportunities for women, minorities, and others
who had been traditionally excluded from certain
roles within U.S. religious denominations. The Civil
Rights and women’s movements of the 1960’s and
1970’s opened up doors for participation in many
positions not only in political and corporate leader-
ship but also for leadership in religious communi-
ties. During the 1970’s, mainstream Episcopalian
and Lutheran churches had voted to allow the ordi-
nation of women. Reform Judaism had ordained its
first female rabbi, Sally Priesand, in 1972. During the
1980’s, other denominations followed this trend. In
1984, the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints (now the Community of Christ) be-
gan to ordain women. Conservative Judaism began
ordaining female rabbis in 1985.
In 1983, the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops
issued a pastoral letter titledThe Hispanic Presence:
Challenge and Commitment, which addressed the Cath-
olic Church’s relationship with believers of Spanish
and Latin American descent. The letter reaffirmed
the need for Church ministries that would address
this rapidly growing segment of the Catholic popu-
lation and encouraged young men in this demo-
graphic to consider serving in the priesthood.Pluralism and Ecumenism The changes that were
begun in previous decades and the opening of or-
dained leadership positions described above were
reflections of larger trends of broader participationThe Eighties in America Religion and spirituality in the United States 819