The Nineties in America - Salem Press (2009)

and signed a bilateral agreement to protect cultural
heritage property of an archaeological and ethno-
logical nature from being illegally exported between
their countries. They diverged when Chrétien made
an official visit to communist Cuba in 1998 and advo-
cated an end to the U.S. embargo of the island na-
tion. An attempt by one man to bring bomb-making
materials into the United States through Washing-
ton state in 1998 and the discovery of terrorist cells
in both Canada and the United States has forced
both nations since the incident to reevaluate travel
across and the policing of their common border.

Impact A stronger Canadian national identity led
Canada to consider adoption of laws more in com-
mon with European Union members than with the
United States on marijuana, health care, same-sex
marriage, pollution, and immigration. Trade and
tourism continued to strengthen ties between both
nations. Cheaper Canadian labor, advanced tech-
nology, and a highly trained workforce increased the
number of U.S. firms establishing operations in Can-
ada. Canadian surpluses in natural gas and oil reflect
a cooperative U.S.-Canadian investment that is du-
plicated in agriculture, communications, and bio-
technology industries. Cheaper Canadian labor has
led to more U.S. television shows and films being
produced in Vancouver, Toronto, Montreal, and
other Canadian locations. The emergence of a
strong Canadian identity stressing multicultural sen-
sitivities witnessed acceptance by the United States
that the two nations would have more divergent ap-
proaches to common problems.

Further Reading
Adams, Michael.Fire and Ice: The U.S., Canada, and
the Myth of Converging Values.Toronto: Penguin
Canada, 2004. A comparative study of Canada
and the United States that challenges traditional
beliefs.
Bothwell, Robert.Canada and the United States: The
Politics of Partnership.New York: Twayne, 1992. A
review of U.S.-Canadian relations over several
centuries.
Chrétien, Jean.My Years as Prime Minister.Toronto:
Alfred A. Knopf, 2007. Details the contacts with
U.S. presidents.
Clinton, Bill.My Life.New York: Alfred A. Knopf,

2004. Clinton’s biography discusses the state of
      U.S.-Canadian ties.
      Kennedy, Kevin C., ed.The First Decade of NAFTA: The

Future of Free Trade in North America.Ardsley, N.Y.:

Transnational, 2004. Evaluates the pros and cons

of NAFTA for Canada, the United States, and

Mexico.

Mulroney, Brian. Memoirs 1939-1993. Toronto:

McClelland & Stewart, 2007. Offers an under-

standing of the ties with three U.S. presidents.

Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall.

Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies.Ath-

ens: University of Georgia Press, 1994. Raises the

question of whether the United States and Can-

ada are truly close, cooperative allies.

Weaver, R. Kent.The Collapse of Canada?Washington,

D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992. Presents the

debate about whether Canada can survive French

Quebec nationalism and the strong influence of

American culture.

Webber, Jeremy. Reimagining Canada. Montreal:

McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1994. Offers

consideration of Canada’s future identity with its

strong separatist tendencies and the dominating

influences of American culture.

William A. Paquette

See also Bloc Québécois; Bosnia conflict; Bush,

George H. W.; Campbell, Kim; Chrétien, Jean;

Clinton, Bill; Elections in Canada; Foreign policy of

Canada; Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf

War; Kosovo conflict; Kyoto Protocol; Mulroney,

Brian; North American Free Trade Agreement

(NAFTA); Quebec referendum of 1995.

 Cancer research

Definition Scientific investigation of the class of

malignant tumors threatening human health

During the 1990’s, cancer research centered on the genetic

basis of the disease. Several specific genes associated with in-

creased cancer risk were identified. Research also addressed

alternative mechanisms by which chemotherapy could be

applied for control of the disease.

In the 1980’s, researchers began to view most can-

cers as genetic diseases rather than having an infec-

tious origin. The discovery of proto-oncogenes and

the role they play in cell regulation became the key

to such an understanding, with the underlying im-

plication that one might screen for certain cancers.

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Cancer research The Nineties in America