eight users to occupy each of the channels that were
spaced 200 kilohertz apart in the 1900 megahertz
bandwidth used by North American GSM. All cell
phones communicate through radio signals with a
cell site base station whose antennae are usually
mounted on a tower, pole, or building. As digital
technology grew, cell phone sales in the United
States approached five million by the end of 1991.
For three fundamental reasons, cell phone sales
soared during the 1990’s. First, digital circuit switch
transmission provided quicker network signaling
that increased call quality and reduced the number
of dropped calls. Second, with advancements in bat-
tery technology and computer chip technology, dig-
ital cell phones became smaller. Handheld cell
phones weighed less than half a pound. Third, by
the mid-1990’s, the average cost of a cell phone had
dropped below $50. Cell phones became status sym-
bols that provided a convenient way of communicat-
ing. They were particularly useful in the case of an
emergency. Martin Cooper and Arlene Harris
founded a company called SOS Wireless in the early
1990’s to accommodate the senior population with
cellular telephone service for emergencies. By 1999,
cell phone sales exceeded sixty-nine million in the
United States.
Impact Cell phones have become invaluable tools
not only for personal communications but also for
business communications. Through the use of cellu-
lar technology, remote areas have been provided
with telephone service without the installation of
telephone lines. The development of digital cell
phones in the 1990’s led to third-generation cell
phones that provide not only wireless vocal commu-
nication but also text messaging, Internet access,
and video communication. These phones contain
cameras, calendars, and alarm clocks, as well as pro-
vide data storage and increasingly better signal cov-
erage. One major concern with the frequent use of
cell phones is the possible link of radio wave radia-
tion with the development of brain cancer.
Further Reading
Agar, Jon.Constant Touch: A Global Histor y of the Mobile
Phone. Blue Ridge Summit, Pa.: Totem Books,
2005.
Goggin, Gerard.Cell Phone Culture: Mobile Technology
in Ever yday Life. New York: Routledge, 2006.
Alvin K. BensonSee also Computers; Digital audio; Instant messag-
ing; Internet; Inventions; Science and technology. Censorship
Definition The suppression of speech or material
considered objectionableWhile pressure groups sought to censor sexual, violent, and
other objectionable media content, often successfully, dur-
ing the 1990’s, the U.S. Supreme Court continued to call
upon the First Amendment in defense of freedom of expres-
sion. The chilling effect of a decade of controversy over ob-
jectionable content in the media led to increasing self-
censorship on the part of artists and commercial entities. By
mid-decade, these censorship battles were extended into
cyberspace.The Nineties in America Censorship 155
As cell phone technology developed, the phones became smaller,
lighter, and cheaper.