The Nineties in America - Salem Press (2009)

dards but were largely ineffective because of a lack of
a planning and enforcement. The 1990 CAA
strengthened the law and added a number of impor-
tant new provisions. It helped to reduce acid rain
and ozone depletion by using an innovative market-
based approach, outlawed the use of leaded gaso-
line, and established an attainable permit system for
large sources of air pollution.
Acid rain is primarily caused by the emission of
sulfur and nitrogen, mostly from power plants and
cars, into the atmosphere. By 1990, acid rain was a
major environmental concern, having adverse ef-
fects on forests, aquatic life, and plants as well as hu-
mans. The 1990 CAA required power plants to
greatly reduce their emissions of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide in two phases, with the dirtiest plants
having to meet an emissions cap by 1995. The pro-
gram used an innovative cap-and-trade system
whereby plants were allowed allowances that could
be bought, sold, or banked for future use. This sys-
tem has proved highly effective in greatly reducing
the emissions of these harmful gases.
Leaded gasoline had been a major environmen-
tal and health problem since it was introduced in the
1920’s. The 1990 CAA mandated the removal of lead
from all gasoline by 1996, leading to a 98 percent re-
duction in airborne lead and greatly reduced blood
lead levels in children.
The ozone layer absorbs over 97 percent of the
Sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), which break down ozone molecules, were
routinely used in many applications, including re-
frigeration, cleaners, and aerosol spray cans. After
the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985,
the U.S. government realized that something had to
be done. The 1990 CAA phased out the production
of chemicals such as CFCs that impacted the ozone
layer. By 1996, U.S. production of CFCs, carbon tet-
rachloride, and methyl chloroform ended.
Despite efforts to clean up older power plants,
they continued to be a major contributor to air pol-
lution in 1990. In an effort to grapple with this prob-
lem, the 1990 CAA introduced a permit program for
large sources of air pollution. The permit included
information on which pollutants were released, how
much could be released, and steps that were being
taken to reduce the pollution. This permitting sys-
tem has simplified and clarified large source pollut-
ers’ obligations and resulted in great progress in
cleaning up older power plants.

Impact The 1990 CAA has been one of the most

successful pieces of environmental legislation in the

history of the United States, greatly improving air

quality. It reduced acid rain, ozone depletion, lead

levels, and cleaned up older power plants. A 2003

study by the government’s Office of Management

and Budget estimated that improvements in air

quality attributable to the 1990 CAA resulted in over

$120 billion in benefits due to reductions in hospi-

talizations, doctors’ visits, premature deaths, and

lost workdays. By comparison, the costs to govern-

ment and industry to implement the 1990 CAA stan-

dards were estimated at approximately $23 billion.

Hence, the benefits have greatly outweighed the

costs.

Further Reading

Bryner, Gary C.Blue Skies, Green Politics: The Clean Air

Act of 1990 and Its Implementation. 2d ed. Washing-

ton, D.C.: CQ Press, 1995.

Environmental Protection Agency.Clean Air Act.

http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/

Robert Flatley

See also Air pollution; Global warming debate;

Kyoto Protocol; Water pollution.

 Clinton, Bill

Identification President of the United States,

1993-2001

Born August 19, 1946; Hope, Arkansas

As the first Democratic president to be elected to two consecu-

tive terms in more than sixty years, Clinton had a tremen-

dous influence in American politics and was a major player

on the world stage in the 1990’s.

On March 1, 1990, Governor Bill Clinton of Arkan-

sas announced that he would seek a fourth term.

Clinton was reelected by a healthy margin in Novem-

ber and spent the next two years raising his profile

on the national scene. He had been one of the

founding members of the Democratic Leadership

Council (DLC), a group of centrist Democratic of-

ficeholders that sought to change the populist im-

age of the Democratic Party. As he traveled the coun-

try speaking at DLC events and policy conferences,

Clinton was urged to run for president in 1992. In

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Clinton, Bill The Nineties in America