helped to attract a new customer type, the casual
diner, to coffeehouses. Patrons could enjoy their
beverages and snacks while communicating via the
Internet. This next step in the evolution of the
coffeehouse brought changes to the interior design,
which remained streamlined for fast service but in-
cluded comfortable furniture, art, and casual mu-
sic—features that began to play an important role in
the coffeehouse atmosphere.
Impact Coffeehouses both supported Americans’
on-the-go lifestyle and provided patrons with com-
fortable social spaces. They also served as conve-
nient locations for Internet access.
Further Reading
Michelli, Joseph A.The Starbucks Experience: Five Prin-
ciples for Turning Ordinar y into Extraordinar y. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.
Schultz, Howard, and Dori Jones Yang.Pour Your
Heart into It: How Starbucks Built a Company One
Cup at a Time. New York: Hyperion, 1997.
James Darrel Alexander, Jr.
See also Food trends; Organic food movement.
Cohen, William S.
Identification U.S. secretary of defense, 1997-
2001
Born August 28, 1940; Bangor, Maine
In Januar y, 1997, President Bill Clinton appointed Co-
hen, a moderate Republican from Maine, as secretar y of de-
fense. The appointment came following Cohen’s decision to
retire after a twenty-four-year legislative career in the U.S.
Congress.
A thoughtful, articulate attorney and author, Wil-
liam S. Cohen was a highly regarded figure in con-
gressional circles when the people of Maine re-
elected him to his second term to the U.S. Senate in
- Known as an independent thinker and at
times an outspoken critic of his party’s leadership,
Senator Cohen became popular with many of his
colleagues for the ability to work with members of
both parties to develop a consensus on a variety of is-
sues. During his eighteen-year career in the Senate
(1979-1997), Cohen served as a member of the
Armed Services Committee and the Senate Select
Committee on Intelligence. By submersing himself
in the subject matter of each of these areas, Senator
Cohen became an authority in the area of defense
policy and national security affairs.
Cohen’s identity as a Republican did not prevent
him from criticizing the occupant of the White
House, even when the president was a member of
the senator’s own party. In 1986, Cohen was one of
only three Republicans to align with Democrats in
signing a majority report that held President Ronald
Reagan accountable for the events known as the
Iran-Contra affair. In 1990, when many in his party
asked for swift military action by the George H. W.
Bush administration following Iraqi president Sad-
dam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait, Cohen was vocal
in calling for the administration to adhere to the
1973 War Powers Act. Cohen believed it was critical
for President Bush to receive a vote from Congress
before the nation proceeded to war.
During President Bill Clinton’s first term, Cohen
criticized a number of the administration’s foreign
and defense policy positions. Cohen opposed con-
tinuing a program that funded the B-2 “stealth”
bomber and criticized the White House’s strategy onThe Nineties in America Cohen, William S. 207
William S. Cohen.(U.S. Department of Defense)