outlook on government’s role in American society.
The congressional leadership of both parties prom-
ised to embrace more moderate proposals and to
back away from the ideologies that dominated the
previous Congress. Their political differences, how-
ever, set up an unrelenting confrontation that would
lead to Clinton’s impeachment and the resignation
of several key Republican congressional leaders as a
result of scandals.
Further Reading
Berke, Richard. “Perot a Far Third.”The New York
Times, November 6, 1996, p. A1. Provides insight
into the election campaign of 1996 and its out-
come.
Clymer, Adam. “In Early Results, Voters Give Meager
Hints on the Outcome of the Battle for the
House.”The New York Times, November 6, 1996,
p. B3. Discusses the impact of the 1994 congres-
sional elections around the country.
McGillivary, Alice V., Richard M. Scammon, and
Rhodes Cook.America at the Polls, 1960-1996: Ken-
nedy to Clinton. Washington, D.C.: Congressional
Quarterly, 1998. This book reports electoral be-
haviors since 1960.
Pomper, Gerald M., et al.The Election of 1996: Reports
and Interpretations. Chatham, N.J.: Chatham
House, 1997. Provides two detailed chapters on
the presidential and congressional races.
Purdum, Todd S. “The Second Term: Promise and
Peril.”The New York Times, November 6, 1996,
p. A1. Focuses upon the opportunities and threats
that a second Clinton administration could have.
Rosenbaum, David. “Democrats Fail to Reverse
Right’s Capitol Hill Gains.”The New York Times,
November 6, 1996, p. A1. Article analyzes the im-
pact of a Republican-controlled Senate.
Dwight Vick
See also Campaign finance scandal; Clinton, Bill;
Clinton, Hillary Rodham; Conservatism in U.S. poli-
tics; Contract with America; Dole, Bob; Elections in
the United States, midterm; Elections in the United
States, 1992; Gingrich, Newt; Gore, Al; Health care;
Kemp, Jack; Liberalism in U.S. politics; Perot, H.
Ross; Reform Party; Republican Revolution; Welfare
reform.
Electric car
Definition An automobile using battery-stored
energy and electric motor
The 1990’s saw a resurgence of interest in electric car devel-
opment, leading to the appearance of several important new
electric cars from both minor and major manufacturers,
and the debut of the first economically viable hybrid gas-
electric car.
Despite the last major electric car introduction hav-
ing taken place over fifteen years before, major auto-
mobile manufacturers as well as small independent
companies put unprecedented energy into intro-
ducing new electric vehicles starting in 1990.
Legislation helped to spur the renewed interest,
although one of the most important legislative acts
was not national but restricted to a single state. Cali-
fornia in 1990 established its zero-emission vehicle
(ZEV) mandate. The mandate required that 2 per-
cent of vehicles in the state be ZEVs by 1998, with the
level to rise to 10 percent by 2003. Most vehicles con-
sidered ZEVs by the California Air Resources Board
(CARB) were electric.
While limited to the state, California’s role as a
trendsetter encouraged larger automakers to con-
sider production of electric vehicles as a serious op-
tion. General Motors (GM) soon unveiled a produc-
tion version of an electric car named Impact, already
in planning in the late 1980’s.
Other legislative and regulatory actions gave the
electric car idea new viability. The federal Clean Air
Act of 1990, which made auto emissions a matter of
official public concern, was followed by the Energy
Policy Act of 1992. The Partnership for a New Gener-
ation of Vehicles was also forged between the “Big
Three” automobile manufacturers—Ford, Chrysler,
and GM—and the U.S. Department of Energy.
In 1993, while planning production of the Impact
(renamed EV1), GM estimated it would take a quar-
ter of a year to collect names of five thousand people
interested in the car. Instead, the process took one
week. Production formally began three years later.
Despite its early start, GM was not first to produce
the new generation of electric passenger cars. Re-
naissance Cars began production of the Tropica in
1995, with a top speed of 60 miles per hour (mph)
and a driving range of 50 miles, carrying two adults.
After a first, small production, unfortunately, the
company failed to find funding to continue.306 Electric car The Nineties in America