Changed the Work of American Manufacturing, Trans-
portation, and Retail Industries. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2004. A broad overview of the ef-
fect of computers and technology in industry and
speculation about future uses.
Hughes, Lawrence E.Internet E-Mail: Protocols, Stan-
dards, and Implementation. The Artech House Tele-
communications Library. Boston: Artech House,
- A detailed technical tour of Internet e-mail.
Includes corporate strategies used by top mar-
keters.
Nussey, Bill.The Quiet Revolution in E-Mail Marketing.
New York: iUniverse, 2004. Discusses how compa-
nies can extend their brands through e-mail.
Okin, J. R.The Internet Revolution: The Not-for-Dummies
Guide to the Histor y, Technology, and Use of the Inter-
net. Winter Harbor, Maine: Ironbound Press, - A modern history of the Internet and its ori-
gins, as well as its uses and effects on society and
business.
Steele, Jeffrey.Email: The Manual—Ever ything You
Should Know About Email Etiquette, Policies, and Le-
gal Liability Before You Hit Send. Oak Park, Ill.:
Marion Street Press, 2006. Best practices for e-mail
policies and pitfalls to avoid.
James J. Heiney
See also America Online; Computers; Hackers;
Instant messaging; Internet; Michelangelo computer
virus; Microsoft; Spam; Yahoo!; World Wide Web.
Employment in Canada
Definition The proportion of the total population
deriving its means of support from wages or
salaries
Although still tied in many areas to the staple economy in
the 1990’s, Canada continued its move away from that
older concept and toward a more typical, highly service-ori-
ented economy characteristic of the developed world.
Even in the twentieth century, Canada retained
many features of its long history as a colonial posses-
sion of Great Britain. During this period, its econ-
omy remained focused on the production of raw ma-
terials frequently used by firms in Britain to
manufacture goods used by ordinary consumers.
Many of those raw materials were minerals such as
iron, nickel, copper, zinc, and asbestos. Many, how-
ever, were natural products both animal and vegeta-
ble, such as fish or agricultural crops, or wood from
trees.
However, the country had begun a long process
of conversion from a staples economy to a modern
service economy in the early twentieth century, and
that process was continuing in the 1990’s. Indeed, in
this decade, at least three-quarters of the jobs in Can-
ada were service jobs, in such fields as insurance, re-
tail and wholesale, and professional services. Public
service provided an ever larger share of the jobs, and
the 1990’s were characterized by growth in both edu-
cation and nursing.
Despite the growth in public-service jobs, employ-
ment in Canada was tied to the business cycle. The
total economy turned down during the early years of
the decade, and employment followed that pattern.
In 1990, there were more than 13 million people em-
ployed in Canada out of a total population of a little
over 27 million. The economy turned up in 1994,
and by 1999 the population had increased to almost
30.5 million, of which almost 15 million were em-
ployed.
The character of the jobs held by Canadians
changed during the 1990’s. The number of jobs in
the old staples industries fell, and the number of
jobs in the service sector rose. The number of full-
time jobs that were also full-year jobs had fallen be-
hind the number of part-time, part-year, or contin-
gent jobs (based on project or task). By 1995, only
one-third of Canadians were in full-time, full-year
jobs; the remainder (where women and minorities
dominated) were part-time or part-year jobs.
Impact During the 1990’s, Canada’s employment
picture followed that of the United States, with one
major exception: In Canada, in contrast to the
United States, the number of unionized workers re-
mained high, largely because of the unionization of
public-sector jobs.
Further Reading
Clement, Wallace, and Leah F. Vosko, eds.Changing
Canada: Political Economy as Transformation. Mon-
treal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2003.
Howlett, Michael, Alex Netherton, and M. Ramesh.
The Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction.
Don Mills, Ont.: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Statistics Canada.Canadian Economic Observer: Histor-
ical Statistical Supplement. Ottawa: Author, 2001.
Nancy M. GordonThe Nineties in America Employment in Canada 311