ter’s government began to devote more attention to
such issues as the environment, the trade and de-
ployment of small arms, human rights, peacekeep-
ing, and international cooperation in general. Such
issues defined the concept of “human security.” This
concept became a defining element of Canadian
foreign policy with a speech delivered by Foreign
Minister Lloyd Axworthy in 1997. Though econom-
ics remained a vital component of the country’s for-
eign policy, humanitarian concerns became impor-
tant to Canada as well.
In many ways, the significant attention given to
human security was not new to Canadian foreign
policy, as Mulroney took important positions
against South African apartheid in the late 1980’s
and in favor of environmental protection at the Rio
Conference in the early 1990’s. In the late 1990’s,
however, the country appeared to stress these kinds
of issues even more. The Liberal government was
particularly active in the area of arms control and
armed conflict. Canada was a leader in creating and
implementing the Mine Ban Treaty, formally the
Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stock-
piling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel
Mines and on Their Destruction (1997). Chrétien’s
government allocated millions of dollars to de-
mine areas and to provide aid to victims of such
weapons throughout the world. In regard to other
weapons, Canada took a leadership role in working
through international organizations to address
small-arms trafficking. In regard to the issue of chil-
dren and armed conflict, Canada worked through
the United Nations, the Organization for Security
and Cooperation in Europe, and the Organization
of American States to try to prevent the use of child
soldiers and to assist those who have been forced to
serve in such capacity. Perhaps most notable was
the country’s role in establishing the International
Criminal Court. This judicial body has become the
first permanent court with the authority to prose-
cute people for war crimes, crimes against human-
ity, and genocide. Canada also was one of the first
countries to ratify the Comprehensive Nuclear-
Test-Ban Treaty.
Canada was also active in other areas compos-
ing the human security agenda. It played a lead-
ing role in creating the Declaration on Human
Rights Defenders—an international statement on
the right and responsibility to promote and protect
universally recognized human rights. Also, Canada
played a leading role on more resolutions address-
ing human rights in the U.N. Commission on Hu-
man Rights than any other country. The country’s
role in the United Nations increased when it once
again became a member of the Security Council at
the end of the 1990’s. To address environmental
concerns, Canada became a party to the Kyoto Pro-
tocol.Impact The substantial attention devoted to trade
in Canadian foreign policy during the first half of
the 1990’s reflected the new post-Cold War era and
the accompanying intensification of globalization.
Canada served as just one example of how several
countries perceived a need to further expand trade
and foreign investment. The renewed emphasis on
human security in the last part of the decade, how-
ever, demonstrated another side of the most recent
era of globalization—the interdependence of coun-
tries, the corresponding necessity of international
cooperation, and the significance of human rights
violations and environmental degradation.Further Reading
Gough, Barry M. Historical Dictionar y of Canada.
Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1999. A compre-
hensive list accompanied by brief descriptions of
political terminology addressing Canada.
Hampson, Fen Osler, et al., eds.Canada Among Na-
tions 1999: A Big League Player?New York: Oxford
University Press, 1999. This series of essays ex-
plores Canadian foreign policy in the areas of
economics, cultural affairs, and international se-
curity.
Riendeau, Roger.A Brief Histor y of Canada.New York:
Facts On File, 2000. A thorough coverage of many
significant issues in Canadian history. Gives an es-
pecially good description of the relationship be-
tween the federal government and Quebec.
Kevin L. BrennanSee also Business and the economy in Canada;
Campbell, Kim; Canada and the British Common-
wealth; Canada and the United States; Chrétien,
Jean; Cold War, end of; Elections in Canada; Em-
ployment in Canada; Europe and North America;
Foreign policy of the United States; Gulf War; Haiti
intervention; Income and wages in Canada; Mul-
roney, Brian; North American Free Trade Agree-
ment (NAFTA); United Nations.The Nineties in America Foreign policy of Canada 345