ning with fiscal years 1991-1995. In 1990, the U.S.
Department of Energy and the National Institutes of
Health presented the proposal to Congress as part of
a request for funding.
By 1994, it became clear not only that the goals of
a complete sequence would likely be met by the year
2005 but also that the project was proceeding faster
than expected. Goals for 1995 were already met a
year ahead of time, as a linkage map for known
genes was nearing completion. High-resolution
maps for two chromosomes, numbers 16 and 19,
were established, while moderate-resolution maps
for four other chromosomes, 3, 11, 12 and 22, were
available as well. Similar laboratory methods had
also resulted in the publishing of complete genome
sequences for other organisms, including members
of the bacteria genera Mycoplasma (1995) and
Methanococcus(1996),Escherichia coli(1997), eukary-
otic organisms such as the yeastSaccharomyces cerevis-
iae(1996), and the 97 million nucleotide bases of
the roundwormCaenorhabditis elegans.
The potential success of the project became ap-
parent in 1999. In September, it was announced that
some 25 percent of the genome had either been se-
quenced, or was at least in draft form, and a “rough
draft” of the genome, encompassing approximately
90 percent of the genome, should be ready within
the year. The development of new technology dur-
ing the years of the project, including DNA sequenc-
ing machines and other mapping resources, meant
the completion of the project would occur years
ahead of the initial goal. In the December 2, 1999, is-
sue of the journalNature, collaborative researchers
from the Sanger Centre in Cambridge, England;
Keio University in Tokyo; University of Oklahoma;
and Washington University in St. Louis reported the
sequence of the more than 33 million nucleotide
bases that make up chromosome 22. By 2000, the
“working draft” of the human genome was available;
it was published early in 2001.
Genetically Modified Plant Crops Genetically mod-
ified foods are plants that have had their DNA al-
tered for a variety of purposes, including improve-
ment in nutrition, increasing resistance to insects,
improving shelf life, and reducing the need to use
artificial fertilizers. The first serious attempts to cre-
ate such genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
took place in the 1990’s, as the technology for isolat-
ing or identifying relevant genes became practical.
The procedures used for creation of a GMO in-
volved isolating the specific genetic information,
cloning the gene, and genetically modifying the
DNA. The modified genetic material could then
be inserted into the nucleus of the plant cell, where
it would integrate within the plant’s own genetic
material.
The first commercially successful genetically
modified food was the Flavr Savr brand of tomato
created by Calgene and marketed in 1994. The ge-
netically modified tomato was created by inactivat-
ing genetic material associated with ripening. The
result was a lengthening of the time during which
the tomato would ripen and rot. Since this tomato
would have a longer shelf life than a non-GMO, it
could be allowed to ripen on the vine, allowing for
improved taste, and could remain in the store for
longer periods of time.
The tomato proved popular among consumers
and represented the first of several artificially pro-
duced and modified foods. During the next several
years, modified plants such as corn, soybeans, cot-
ton, and canola were created, which exhibited insect
and herbicide resistance, tolerance to both cold and
drought, and resistance to several types of parasite
infections. However, such foods were not without
their own controversies, particularly those foods
consumed by humans. Among such concerns were
effects on the environment (monarch butterflies
feed on some of the plants); crossbreeding with
other plants, with concerns about creation of “super-
weeds”; and possible allergic reactions in humans
who consume GMOs. The discovery of illnesses asso-
ciated with genetic contamination of animals, albeit
by accident, as in the case of bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (commonly known as mad cow dis-
ease), raised additional concerns about the creation
of such modified foods.Impact The identification of literally hundreds of
loci on the human genome with the potential to in-
fluence genetic characteristics, including those with
the potential to influence the health and longevity
of the individual, has implications beyond simply
the monitoring of disease. Screening of the fetus, as
well as newborns, for deleterious genes clearly pro-
duces a ripple effect in the health care industry. Be-
yond this, questions have been raised as to the role of
the insurance industry. Should health insurance
companies be required to provide future health careThe Nineties in America Genetics research 365