programs. He also eliminated fifteen thousand mu-
nicipal jobs and called for increases in worker pro-
ductivity. He sold the city-owned television station,
its two radio stations, and a city-owned hotel; he pri-
vatized building maintenance, garbage collection,
and road resurfacing. His struggle with the Board of
Education to cut jobs was especially bitter, and he
gained a reputation as an autocratic bully. In 1994,
for example, lawyers from the city’s Legal Aid De-
partment went on strike, and its managers voted for
pay raises. Giuliani cut the department’s budget by
16 percent and offered a new contract with a no-
strike clause and mandated reorganization.
By 1995, crime had dropped by 33 percent. By
1996, with a booming economy, the city had a $450
million surplus revenue. Giuliani’s mayoral oppo-
nent in 1997 was Democrat Ruth Messinger, who lost
by a significant margin. In his second term, police
cameras were installed in Washington Square Park,
and smoking was banned in city restaurants. Giuliani
ordered a controversial crackdown on jaywalkers
and the homeless, and his plan for a gambling ca-
sino on Governor’s Island collapsed.
Impact A 1997 Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) report stated that people were more likely to
be victims of serious or violent crimes in Anchorage,
Alaska, than in New York City. Crime continued to
decline in 1999, while the city announced a $2.6 bil-
lion surplus. New Yorkers appreciated the restored
order, but Giuliani was criticized as abrasive and
seeking power by gutting departments and services.
In the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on Septem-
ber 11, 2001, he received world praise for his firm
control of emergency services and liaisons with fed-
eral agencies.
Further Reading
Giuliani, Rudolph.Leadership. New York: Hyperion,
2002.
Kirtzman, Andrew.The Emperor of the City. New York:
William Morrow, 2000.
Jim Pauff
See also Conservatism in U.S. politics; Crime;
Crown Heights riot; Dinkins, David; Lee, Spike; Lib-
eralism in U.S. politics; Mafia; Police brutality; Re-
cession of 1990-1991; Republican Revolution; Sharp-
ton, Al; Terrorism; World Trade Center bombing.
Glenn, John
Identification U.S. politician and astronaut
Born July 18, 1921; Cambridge, Ohio
A notable career in the U.S. militar y and his fame as the
first American to orbit Earth continued with Glenn’s elec-
tion to four terms in the U.S. Senate and a return to space in
1998 as the world’s oldest astronaut.
Following his election to the Senate in 1974 as a
Democrat, John Glenn was reelected in 1980, 1986,
and 1992. His committee assignments included
Armed Services, Foreign Relations, and the Special
Committee on Aging. He chaired the Governmental
Affairs Committee (1987-1995).
Glenn’s record in the U.S. Senate was unblem-
ished until, along with four other senators, he be-
came involved in a financial scandal involving a
failed savings and loan company that sought their as-
sistance in dealing with its problems. The Senate
Ethics Committee began hearings in November of
1990 to investigate allegations of improper efforts to
assist Charles Keating, the company head. The com-The Nineties in America Glenn, John 373
John Glenn in 1998.(NASA)