Wozniak.The Art of Deception: Controlling the Hu-
man Element of Security. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, 2002. A book whose primary author,
Mitnick, is one of the most famous hackers of all
time.
Ralston, Anthony, Edwin D. Reilly, and David
Hemmendinger, eds.Encyclopedia of Computer Sci-
ence. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003. This text
is one of the standard reference works in its field.
The fourth edition has very accurate articles cov-
ering all areas in and related to computers, in-
cluding many articles on computers security.
George M. Whitson III
See also Apple Computer; CGI; Computers;
DVDs; E-mail; Instant messaging; Internet; Michel-
angelo computer virus; Microsoft; MP3 format;
PDAs; Silicon Valley; Spam; World Wide Web; Y2K
problem.
Hairstyles
Definition Popular styles or manners of arranging
the hair
The 1990’s saw a return to natural and low-maintenance
hairstyles for both men and women.
During the 1990’s, African American women wore
popular 1960’s hairstyles, like the bob and the bee-
hive; Caucasian women cut their Farrah Fawcett
styles into shorter styles; and African American and
Caucasian men cropped, spiked, or flat-topped
theirs. In the early 1990’s, the “Kimberly crop,”
named for the actress Kimberly Foster of the prime-
time soap operaDallas, was trendy among white
women. The early 1990’s also witnessed a popular re-
surgence of hard rollers, the kind that do not use
electricity; their rise in popularity accompanied the
return to natural hair, not processed by harsh chemi-
cals and heat. Cornrows, offered in the Caribbean to
tourists, saw a revival during those first years of the
decade.
African American women, who had long strug-
gled with “nappy” hairstyles that required hours of
preparation and treatment, dismissed texturizers,
Jheri curls, and perms in favor of close crops, natural
waves, and braids. Beehives, Afros, and French twists
were also popular natural alternatives. The year
1992 also witnessed the rise of the grunge subcul-
ture, with its accompanying dyed-black, long, stringy
hairstyle for both girls and boys. The grunge and
goth styles were generally popular for white people,
particularly those under age twenty-five.
1993-1995 As the decade progressed, many women
of all ethnicities refused to cut their long hair short,
a trend that one reporter called “Rapunzel worship,”
or the popular belief that a woman’s hair is her
crown of glory. In 1993, computers helped men and
women “try on” a hairstyle before a cut: Software
programs used pictures of clients’ faces to display
images of trendy cuts. Newspapers across the coun-
try kept tabs on First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton’s
hairstyles. By 1994, stylists and their clients were
ready to express imagination with their hairstyles,
such as creative updos. For black women’s hair, one
new style dictated short or shaved, like black record-
ing artist Me’Shell Ndegeocello’s buzz cut.
By mid-decade, men’s unorthodox hairstyles be-
gan to draw more media attention, particularly
when the hairstyle was long or of an unnatural color.
As men’s hair lengthened, young women, inspired
by the actresses on the hit television showBeverly
Hills, 90210, cut their long locks shorter. Young
women and girls began coloring pieces of their hair,
known as “chunks” or “streaks,” in primary or neon
colors or wearing similar hair pieces, spawning a rip-
ple of middle and high school rules against such be-
haviors. Because hairstyles received coverage on
television, African Americans such as talk-show host
Oprah Winfrey were able to dispel many long-stand-
ing myths about black hair, including why black men
and women do not wash their hair daily, which re-
lates to hair health, not hygiene.
1996-1999 In 1996, with long hair for men and
short hair for women in vogue, high-profile men and
women began to wear their hair however they
wanted, inspiring the nation to do the same. There
were, as usual, hair trends, but for the most part
Americans felt free to do what they wanted. The pre-
vious decades witnessed job instability and public
scrutiny concerning extraordinary hairstyles, but as
the public’s knowledge about different hairstyles
and textures increased, so did acceptance. “The Ra-
chel,” a hairstyle popularized by Jennifer Aniston’s
character Rachel Green on the television show
Friends, encouraged women to grow their hair and
layer it. Other celebrities who influenced hairstyles
of the late 1990’s include Halle Berry, George398 Hairstyles The Nineties in America