proved ineffective at tackling the country’s most im-
portant issues—namely, unemployment and the
lack of foreign investment.
Impact The 1994 intervention was a last resort by
the Clinton administration to curb Haitian immigra-
tion into the United States as well as an attempt to re-
establish democratic rule in the country. This inter-
vention had a great impact on the politics of Haiti
and subsequently led to the development of a U.N.
humanitarian mission in the country. The interven-
tion and the policies enacted before the interven-
tion also set the tone of American foreign policy in
Latin America in the 1990’s and generated heated
debates regarding immigration from Latin Ameri-
can countries into the United States.
Further Reading
Ballard, John R.Upholding Democracy: The United
States Militar y Campaign in Haiti, 1994-1997.West-
port, Conn.: Praeger, 1998. Focuses on the other
agencies responsible for the planning and imple-
mentation of the intervention, including non-
governmental organizations, intergovernmental
agencies, private volunteer organizations, and
other actors.
Girard, Philippe R.Clinton in Haiti: The 1994 U.S. In-
vasion of Haiti.New York: Palgrave MacMillan,
- Focuses on the political career of Aristide
and the foreign policy dynamics between Haiti
and the United States.
Perusse, Roland I.Haitian Democracy Restored, 1991-
1995.Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, - Focuses on Aristide and his presidency be-
fore the military junta overthrow. Also looks at
the role of the United States, the United Nations,
and other organizations in the intervention.
Pezzullo, Ralph.Plunging into Haiti: Clinton, Aristide,
and the Defeat of Diplomacy.Jackson: University
Press of Mississippi, 2006. Provides an insider’s
look at the negotiations between the United
States and Haiti before, during, and after the in-
tervention.
Pedro dos Santos
See also Bush, George H. W.; Christopher, War-
ren; Clinton, Bill; Foreign policy of the United
States; Illegal immigration; Immigration to the
United States; Latin America.
Hale-Bopp comet
The Event The appearance of a magnificent
naked-eye comet
Date July 22, 1995-fall, 1997The discover y and later naked-eye appearance of Comet
Hale-Bopp galvanized the world’s interest in astronomy.People often feel that the professional scientist who
uses the largest telescope and very sophisticated
technology makes the greatest discoveries in astron-
omy. While this is often true, there is still room for
the amateur sky watcher to make important discov-
eries. This is what happened to Alan Hale and
Thomas Bopp on the night of July 22-23, 1995. Hale
was viewing in the region of the constellation Sagit-
tarius when he noticed a fuzzy object in his tele-
scope’s field of view. Thinking that this might be a
possible comet, he made sure he was not looking at a
similar known object. Once convinced it was a
comet, Hale sent an e-mail message to Brian Mars-
den at the Central Bureau for Astronomical Tele-
grams in Cambridge, Massachusetts, informing him
of his find. Unknown to Hale, in Stanfield, Arizona,
Bopp was also observing in the same region of sky.
He too found the fuzzy object and observed its mo-
tion against the background stars. He also knew that
it was a comet and sent his discovery to the Central
Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams via telegram,
but Hale’s message had arrived first. In science,
when two individuals independently make the same
discovery at almost the same time, both are given
equal credit.
In 1994, people watched images of Comet Shoe-
maker-Levy collide with Jupiter, and in 1996 the bril-
liant Comet Hyakutake dominated the evening sky.
With predictions that Comet Hale-Bopp would even
outshine Hyakutake, people around the world anx-
iously awaited its arrival. In March, 1997, Comet
Hale-Bopp stretched halfway across the evening sky
and was easily seen by millions of people.Impact Many people enjoyed their view of Comet
Hale-Bopp, but some viewed its appearance very dif-
ferently. A religious group called Heaven’s Gate be-
lieved that the appearance of the comet had special
meaning for them. The group’s founder, Marshall
Applewhite, told thirty-eight of his followers that
Earth was about to be “cleansed” by a cosmic event
and that they had to immediately leave the planet.The Nineties in America Hale-Bopp comet 401